基性岩摩擦本构参数与下地壳地震成核的可能性
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摘要
摩擦滑动的力学行为能够很好地由速率和状态依赖性摩擦本构关系来描述。文中对地壳岩石滑动稳定性的控制因素进行了综述:1)微小扰动对摩擦滑动的影响分析(线性分析)表明,摩擦滑动中不稳定产生的重要条件是速率依赖性参数a-b<0,在这种条件下,地震滑动可以在断层上成核;2)下地壳的水含量测定表明,可能存在“干”、“湿”两种情况,而已有岩石流变实验结果表明稳定大陆内部下地壳在干燥条件下为脆性变形行为;3)近年来发现一部分强震发生在基性的下地壳,使辉长岩高温高压摩擦实验受到重视。干燥条件下辉长岩的摩擦实验研究表明,在420~615℃的温度范围内,速度弱化可能是典型的滑动行为。综合考虑较冷大陆内部下地壳可能出现的“干燥”条件以及在此条件下不大可能发生塑性流动等相关因素,这一结果可能就是在一些地区下地壳发生地震的原因。
Mechanical behaviors of frictional sliding can be described well by rate-and state-dependent friction laws.This paper reviews factors that control sliding stability of crustal rocks,and summarizes as follows:(1)analysis of small perturbation around steady state sliding(linear analysis)shows that an important condition for self-sustained instability to occur is a negative rate dependence of friction(a-b<0).Under such a condition,earthquake slips can nucleate on active faults.(2)Measurement of water content in crustal rocks implies that both “dry” and “wet” conditions in the lower crust are possible,and previous creep experiments show that deformation mechanisms under dry conditions are notionally brittle fracture and faulting.(3)Attention has been paid to gabbro under high pressure and temperature as a number of strong earthquakes were discovered to have occurred in the lower crust.Experiments on dry gabbro indicate that velocity weakening may be the typical sliding behavior with temperature ranging from 420℃ to 615℃.Synthetically considering the relevant conditions such as “dry” condition that may exist in relatively cool interior of continental lower crust,and mafic rock that is not likely to deform by plastic flow under such conditions,we may extrapolate this result to actual tectonic settings where the environments are more complex.This may explain why earthquakes occur in the lower crust in some areas.
Mechanical behaviors of frictional sliding can be described well by rate-and state-dependent friction laws.This paper reviews factors that control sliding stability of crustal rocks,and summarizes as follows:(1)analysis of small perturbation around steady state sliding(linear analysis)shows that an important condition for self-sustained instability to occur is a negative rate dependence of friction(a-b<0).Under such a condition,earthquake slips can nucleate on active faults.(2)Measurement of water content in crustal rocks implies that both “dry” and “wet” conditions in the lower crust are possible,and previous creep experiments show that deformation mechanisms under dry conditions are notionally brittle fracture and faulting.(3)Attention has been paid to gabbro under high pressure and temperature as a number of strong earthquakes were discovered to have occurred in the lower crust.Experiments on dry gabbro indicate that velocity weakening may be the typical sliding behavior with temperature ranging from 420℃ to 615℃.Synthetically considering the relevant conditions such as “dry” condition that may exist in relatively cool interior of continental lower crust,and mafic rock that is not likely to deform by plastic flow under such conditions,we may extrapolate this result to actual tectonic settings where the environments are more complex.This may explain why earthquakes occur in the lower crust in some areas.
引文
何昌荣,陶青峰,王泽利.2004.高温高压条件下辉长岩的摩擦强度及其速度依赖性[J].地震地质,26(3):450—460.HE Chang-rong,TAO Qing-feng,WANG Ze-li.2004.Frictional strength and rate dependence of gabbro gouge underelevated temperature and pressure[J].Seismology and Geology,26(3):450—460(in Chinese).
Bailey R C.1994.Fluid trapping in mid-crustal reservoirs by H2O-CO2mixtures[J].Nature,371:238—240.
Beeler N M,Tullis TE.1994.The role of time and displacement in the evolution effect in rock friction[J].GeophysRes Lett,21:1987—1990.
Biegel R L,Sammis C G,Dieterich J H.1989.The frictional properties of a simulated gouge having a fractal particledistribution[J].J Struct Geol,11:827—846.
Blanpied M L,Lockner D A,Byerlee J D.1991.Fault stability inferred from granite sliding experiments at hydrother-mal conditions[J].Geophys Res Lett,18:609—612.
Blanpied M L,Lockner D A,Byerlee J D.1995.Frictional slip of granite at hydrothermal conditions[J].J GeophysRes,100:13045—13064.
Brace W F,Byerlee J D.1966.Stick-slip as a mechanism for earthquakes[J].Science,153:990—992.
Brace W F,Bylerlee J D.1970.California earthquake:why only shallow focus[J].Science,168:1573—1575.
Byerlee J D.1978.Friction of rocks[J].Pure Appl Geophys,116:615—626.
Chapman D S.1986.Thermal gradients in the continental crust[A].In:Dawson J B(ed).The Nature of the LowerContinental Crust.Geol Soc Special Publication,24:63—70.
Chen W P,Molnar P.1983.Focal depths of intracontinental and intraplate earthquakes and their implications for thethermal and mechanical properties of lithosphere[J].J Geophys Res,88:4183—4214.
Chester F M,Higgs N G.1992.Multimechanism friction constitutive model for ultrafine quartz gouge at hypocentralconditions[J].J Geophys Res,97:1859—1870.
Chester F M.1994.Effects of temperature on friction:Constitutive equations and experiments with quartz gouge[J].J Geophys Res,99:7247—7261.
Cox S J D.1990.Velocity dependent friction on a large direct shear experiment on gabbro[A].In:Knipe R J andRutter E H(eds).Deformation Mechanisms,Rheology and Tectonics.Geol Soc Special Publication,54:63—70.
Dieterich J H.1978.Time-dependent friction and the mechanics of stick-slip[J].Pure Appl Geophys,116:790—806.
Dieterich J H.1979.Modeling of rock friction:1.Experimental results and constitutive equations[J].J GeophysRes,84:2161—2168.
Dieterich J H.1981.Constitutive properties of faults with simulated gouge[A].In:Carter N L,Friedman M,LoganJ M,Stearns D W(eds).Mechanical Behavior of Crustal Rocks.Geophys Monogr Ser,24,AGU,WashingtonD.C.103—120.
Dieterich J H,Conrad G.1984.Effect of humidity on time-and velocity-dependent friction in rocks[J].J GeophysRes,89:4196—4202.
Dieterich J H.1992.Earthquake nucleation on faults with rate-and state-dependent strength[J].Tectonophysics,211:115—134.
Dieterich J H,Linker M F.1992.Fault stability under conditions of variable normal stress[J].Geophys Res Lett,19:1691—1694.
Dieterich J H,Kilgore B D.1994.Direct observation of frictional contacts:newinsights for state-dependent properties[J],Pure Appl Geophys,143:283—302.
Gu J C,Rice J R,Ruina A L,et al.1984.Slip motion and stability of a single degree of freedom elastic system withrate and state dependent friction[J].J Mech Phy Solids,32:167—196.
Gu Y,Wong TF.1994.Nonlinear dynamics of the transition from stable sliding to cyclic stick-slip in rock[A].In:Nonlinear Dynamics and Predictability of Geophysical Phenomena.Geophysical Monograph83,IUUG18:15—35.
Heaton TH.1990.Evidence for and implications of self-healing pulses of slip in earthquake rupture[J].Phy EarthPlanet Inter,64:1—20.
He C,Wong TF,Beeler NM.2003a.Scaling of stress drop with recurrence interval and loading velocity for laborato-ry-derived fault strength relations[J].J Geophys Res,108:doi:10.1029/2002JB001890.
He C,Zhou Y,Sang Z.2003b.An experimental study on semi-brittle and plastic rheology of Panzhihua gabbro[J].Science in China(Ser D),46:730—742.
He C,Yao W,Wang Z,et al.2006.Strength and stability of frictional sliding of gabbro gouge at elevated tempera-tures[J].Tectonophysics,doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.05.023.217—229.
Jackson J.2002.Strength of the continental lithosphere:Time to abandon the jelly sandwich[J].GSA Today,Sep-tember2002:4—9.
Johnson E A,Rossman G R,Dyar M,et al.2002.Correlation between OHconcentration and oxygen isotope diffusionrate in diopsides from the Adirondack Mountains[J].New York Am Mineral,87:899—908.
Jones A G.1987.MTand reflection:an essential combination[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,89:7—18.
Karato S,Paterson M S,Fitz Gerald J D.1986.Rheology of synthetic olivine aggregates:influence of grain size andwater[J].J Geophys Res,91:8151—8176.
Kilgore B D,Blanpied M,Dieterich J H.1993.Velocity dependent friction of granite over a wide range of conditions[J].Geophys Res Lett,20:903—906.
Kohlstedt D L,Evans B,Mackwell S J.1995.Strength of the lithosphere:Constraints imposed by laboratory experi-ments[J].J Geophys Res,100:17587—17602.
Linker MF,Dieterich J H.1992.Effects of variable normal stress on rock friction:observations and constitutive equa-tions[J].J Geophys Res,97:4923—4940.
Lockner D A,Summers R,Byerlee J D.1986.Effects of temperature and sliding rate on frictional strength of granite[J].Pure Appl Geophys,124:445—469.
Mackwell S J,Zimmerman ME,Kohlstedt D L.1998.High-temperature deformation of dry diabase with application totectonics on Venus[J].J Geophys Res,103:975—984.
Maggi A,Jackson J,Priestley K,et al.2000.Are-assessment of focal depth distributions in southern Iran,the Tien Shanand northern India:do earthquakes really occur in the continental mantle[J].Geophys J Int,143:629—661.
Marone C,Hobbs B E,Ord A.1992.Coulomb constitutive laws for friction:contrasts in frictional behavior for distrib-uted and localized shear[J].Pure Appl Geophys,139:196—214.
Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.2000a.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,1.diffusion creep regime[J].J Geophys Res,105:21457—21469.
Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.2000b.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,2.dislocation creep re-gime[J].J Geophys Res,105:21471—21481.
Morrow C A,Lockner D A.2001.Hayward fault rocks:porosity,density,and strength measurements[R].US GeolSurv Open-file Report,01—421.
Nakatani M,Mochizuki H.1996.Effect of shear stress applied to surfaces in stationary contact on rock friction[J].Geophys Res Lett,23:869—872.
Perrin G,Rice J,Zheng G.1995.Self-healing slip pulse on a frictional surface[J].J Mech Phys Solids,43:1461—1495.
Rice J R,Ruina A L.1983.Stability of steady frictional slipping[J].J Appl Mech,50:343—349.
Rice J R,Tse S T.1986.Dynamic motion of a single degree of freedom system following a rate and state dependentfriction law[J].J Geophys Res,91:521—530.
Ruina A L.1983.Slip instability and state variable friction laws[J].J Geophys Res,88:10359—10370.
Rybacki E,Dresen G.2000.Dislocation and diffusion creep of synthetic anorthite aggregates[J].J Geophs Res,105:26017—26036.
Rybacki E,Dresen G.2004.Deformation mechanism maps for feldspar rocks[J].Tectonophysics,382:173—187.
Shimamoto T.1986.Transition between frictional slip and ductile flowfor halite shear zones at room temperature[J].Science,231:711—714.
Skogby H,Bell D,Rossman G R.1990.Hydroxide in pyroxene:Variations in the natural environment[J].Am Min-eral,75:764—774.
Stesky R M,Brace W F,Riley D K,et al.1974.Friction in faulted rock at high temperature and pressure[J].Tec-tonophysics,23:177—203.
Tse S,Rice J R.1986.Crustal earthquake instability in relation to the depth variation of frictional slip properties[J].J Geophys Res,91:9452—9472.
Wang Y,Wang J,Xiong L.2000.Heat flow pattern in the mainland of China and its geodynamic significance[J].Acta Geologica Sinica,74:375—380.
Yardley B W D,Valley J W.1994.How wet is the earth’s crust[J].Nature,371:205—206.
Bailey R C.1994.Fluid trapping in mid-crustal reservoirs by H2O-CO2mixtures[J].Nature,371:238—240.
Beeler N M,Tullis TE.1994.The role of time and displacement in the evolution effect in rock friction[J].GeophysRes Lett,21:1987—1990.
Biegel R L,Sammis C G,Dieterich J H.1989.The frictional properties of a simulated gouge having a fractal particledistribution[J].J Struct Geol,11:827—846.
Blanpied M L,Lockner D A,Byerlee J D.1991.Fault stability inferred from granite sliding experiments at hydrother-mal conditions[J].Geophys Res Lett,18:609—612.
Blanpied M L,Lockner D A,Byerlee J D.1995.Frictional slip of granite at hydrothermal conditions[J].J GeophysRes,100:13045—13064.
Brace W F,Byerlee J D.1966.Stick-slip as a mechanism for earthquakes[J].Science,153:990—992.
Brace W F,Bylerlee J D.1970.California earthquake:why only shallow focus[J].Science,168:1573—1575.
Byerlee J D.1978.Friction of rocks[J].Pure Appl Geophys,116:615—626.
Chapman D S.1986.Thermal gradients in the continental crust[A].In:Dawson J B(ed).The Nature of the LowerContinental Crust.Geol Soc Special Publication,24:63—70.
Chen W P,Molnar P.1983.Focal depths of intracontinental and intraplate earthquakes and their implications for thethermal and mechanical properties of lithosphere[J].J Geophys Res,88:4183—4214.
Chester F M,Higgs N G.1992.Multimechanism friction constitutive model for ultrafine quartz gouge at hypocentralconditions[J].J Geophys Res,97:1859—1870.
Chester F M.1994.Effects of temperature on friction:Constitutive equations and experiments with quartz gouge[J].J Geophys Res,99:7247—7261.
Cox S J D.1990.Velocity dependent friction on a large direct shear experiment on gabbro[A].In:Knipe R J andRutter E H(eds).Deformation Mechanisms,Rheology and Tectonics.Geol Soc Special Publication,54:63—70.
Dieterich J H.1978.Time-dependent friction and the mechanics of stick-slip[J].Pure Appl Geophys,116:790—806.
Dieterich J H.1979.Modeling of rock friction:1.Experimental results and constitutive equations[J].J GeophysRes,84:2161—2168.
Dieterich J H.1981.Constitutive properties of faults with simulated gouge[A].In:Carter N L,Friedman M,LoganJ M,Stearns D W(eds).Mechanical Behavior of Crustal Rocks.Geophys Monogr Ser,24,AGU,WashingtonD.C.103—120.
Dieterich J H,Conrad G.1984.Effect of humidity on time-and velocity-dependent friction in rocks[J].J GeophysRes,89:4196—4202.
Dieterich J H.1992.Earthquake nucleation on faults with rate-and state-dependent strength[J].Tectonophysics,211:115—134.
Dieterich J H,Linker M F.1992.Fault stability under conditions of variable normal stress[J].Geophys Res Lett,19:1691—1694.
Dieterich J H,Kilgore B D.1994.Direct observation of frictional contacts:newinsights for state-dependent properties[J],Pure Appl Geophys,143:283—302.
Gu J C,Rice J R,Ruina A L,et al.1984.Slip motion and stability of a single degree of freedom elastic system withrate and state dependent friction[J].J Mech Phy Solids,32:167—196.
Gu Y,Wong TF.1994.Nonlinear dynamics of the transition from stable sliding to cyclic stick-slip in rock[A].In:Nonlinear Dynamics and Predictability of Geophysical Phenomena.Geophysical Monograph83,IUUG18:15—35.
Heaton TH.1990.Evidence for and implications of self-healing pulses of slip in earthquake rupture[J].Phy EarthPlanet Inter,64:1—20.
He C,Wong TF,Beeler NM.2003a.Scaling of stress drop with recurrence interval and loading velocity for laborato-ry-derived fault strength relations[J].J Geophys Res,108:doi:10.1029/2002JB001890.
He C,Zhou Y,Sang Z.2003b.An experimental study on semi-brittle and plastic rheology of Panzhihua gabbro[J].Science in China(Ser D),46:730—742.
He C,Yao W,Wang Z,et al.2006.Strength and stability of frictional sliding of gabbro gouge at elevated tempera-tures[J].Tectonophysics,doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.05.023.217—229.
Jackson J.2002.Strength of the continental lithosphere:Time to abandon the jelly sandwich[J].GSA Today,Sep-tember2002:4—9.
Johnson E A,Rossman G R,Dyar M,et al.2002.Correlation between OHconcentration and oxygen isotope diffusionrate in diopsides from the Adirondack Mountains[J].New York Am Mineral,87:899—908.
Jones A G.1987.MTand reflection:an essential combination[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,89:7—18.
Karato S,Paterson M S,Fitz Gerald J D.1986.Rheology of synthetic olivine aggregates:influence of grain size andwater[J].J Geophys Res,91:8151—8176.
Kilgore B D,Blanpied M,Dieterich J H.1993.Velocity dependent friction of granite over a wide range of conditions[J].Geophys Res Lett,20:903—906.
Kohlstedt D L,Evans B,Mackwell S J.1995.Strength of the lithosphere:Constraints imposed by laboratory experi-ments[J].J Geophys Res,100:17587—17602.
Linker MF,Dieterich J H.1992.Effects of variable normal stress on rock friction:observations and constitutive equa-tions[J].J Geophys Res,97:4923—4940.
Lockner D A,Summers R,Byerlee J D.1986.Effects of temperature and sliding rate on frictional strength of granite[J].Pure Appl Geophys,124:445—469.
Mackwell S J,Zimmerman ME,Kohlstedt D L.1998.High-temperature deformation of dry diabase with application totectonics on Venus[J].J Geophys Res,103:975—984.
Maggi A,Jackson J,Priestley K,et al.2000.Are-assessment of focal depth distributions in southern Iran,the Tien Shanand northern India:do earthquakes really occur in the continental mantle[J].Geophys J Int,143:629—661.
Marone C,Hobbs B E,Ord A.1992.Coulomb constitutive laws for friction:contrasts in frictional behavior for distrib-uted and localized shear[J].Pure Appl Geophys,139:196—214.
Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.2000a.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,1.diffusion creep regime[J].J Geophys Res,105:21457—21469.
Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.2000b.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,2.dislocation creep re-gime[J].J Geophys Res,105:21471—21481.
Morrow C A,Lockner D A.2001.Hayward fault rocks:porosity,density,and strength measurements[R].US GeolSurv Open-file Report,01—421.
Nakatani M,Mochizuki H.1996.Effect of shear stress applied to surfaces in stationary contact on rock friction[J].Geophys Res Lett,23:869—872.
Perrin G,Rice J,Zheng G.1995.Self-healing slip pulse on a frictional surface[J].J Mech Phys Solids,43:1461—1495.
Rice J R,Ruina A L.1983.Stability of steady frictional slipping[J].J Appl Mech,50:343—349.
Rice J R,Tse S T.1986.Dynamic motion of a single degree of freedom system following a rate and state dependentfriction law[J].J Geophys Res,91:521—530.
Ruina A L.1983.Slip instability and state variable friction laws[J].J Geophys Res,88:10359—10370.
Rybacki E,Dresen G.2000.Dislocation and diffusion creep of synthetic anorthite aggregates[J].J Geophs Res,105:26017—26036.
Rybacki E,Dresen G.2004.Deformation mechanism maps for feldspar rocks[J].Tectonophysics,382:173—187.
Shimamoto T.1986.Transition between frictional slip and ductile flowfor halite shear zones at room temperature[J].Science,231:711—714.
Skogby H,Bell D,Rossman G R.1990.Hydroxide in pyroxene:Variations in the natural environment[J].Am Min-eral,75:764—774.
Stesky R M,Brace W F,Riley D K,et al.1974.Friction in faulted rock at high temperature and pressure[J].Tec-tonophysics,23:177—203.
Tse S,Rice J R.1986.Crustal earthquake instability in relation to the depth variation of frictional slip properties[J].J Geophys Res,91:9452—9472.
Wang Y,Wang J,Xiong L.2000.Heat flow pattern in the mainland of China and its geodynamic significance[J].Acta Geologica Sinica,74:375—380.
Yardley B W D,Valley J W.1994.How wet is the earth’s crust[J].Nature,371:205—206.
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