安第斯的久旱、并发性自然灾害及人类的反馈模式
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摘要
迈克尔·E·莫斯利采用适应性的观点,通过考古学来讨论安第斯地区长期的干旱和并发的自然灾害所产生的经济与人口方面的影响,探讨旷日持久的灾难之间大的文化变迁的影响,如干旱以及随之加剧的脆弱性和伴生的突发性灾害如地震等,力图揭示自然灾害与文化变迁之间的互动关系。
Michael E.Moseley develops an adaptational perspective in discussing,through archaeology,the economic and demographic ramifications of long-term drought and concurrent natural disasters in the Andes.He aims to explore the implications for major cultural changes in the linkages between protracted disaster,such as drought,concomitant increased vulnerability,and the concurrence of sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes.
Michael E.Moseley develops an adaptational perspective in discussing,through archaeology,the economic and demographic ramifications of long-term drought and concurrent natural disasters in the Andes.He aims to explore the implications for major cultural changes in the linkages between protracted disaster,such as drought,concomitant increased vulnerability,and the concurrence of sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes.
引文
1.J.,Tossi and ONERN(1976),Mapa ecologico del Peru:Guia explicativa.Lima:ONERN.
2.John Earls(1996),Rotative Rank Hierarchy and RecursiveOrganization:The Andean Peasant Community as a ViableSystem.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 24:297-320.
3.Virginia Garcia-Acosta(2001),“Historical Disaster Re-search”,in Susanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.49-66.
4.J.Terrence McCabe(2001),“Impact of and Response toDrought among Turkana Pastoralists:Implications for An-thropological Theory and Hazards Research”,in SusannaHoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School ofAmerican Research Press,Pp.213-36.
5.Susanna M.Hoffman(2001),“The Monster and the Moth-er:The Symbolism of Disaster”,in Susanna Hoffman andAnthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:theAnthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Re-search Press,Pp.113-42.
6.Christopher L.Dyer(2001),“Punctuated Entropy as Cul-ture-Induced Change:The Case of the Exxon Valdez OilSpill”,in Susanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.157-86.
7.S.Ravi Rajan(2001),“Missing Expertise,Categorical Pol-itics,and Chronic Disasters:The Case of Bhopal”,in Su-sanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastro-phe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.237--60.
8.Gregory V.Button(2001),“Popular Media Reframing ofMan-Made Disasters:A Cautionary Tale”,in SusannaHoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School ofAmerican Research Press,Pp.143--58.
9.Michael E.Moseley and R.A.Feldman(1982a),“Vivarcon crisis:Percepcion hummana de proceso y tiempo.Re-vista del Museo Nacional 46:267-87.
10.Michael E.Moseley(1992),The Incas and Their Ances-tors.London:Thames and Hudson.
11.David K.Keefer(1994),The Importance of Earthquake-Induced Landslides to Long-Term Slope Erosion and Slope-Failure Hazards in Seismically Active Regions.Geomor-phology 10:265-84.
12.W.H.,Quinnn,V.T.Neal and S.E.Antunez deMayolo(1987),El Nino Occurrences over the Past Fourand a Half Centuries.Journal of Geophysical Research 92:14449-61.
13.Michael E.Moseley and J.R.Richardson III(1992).Doomed by Disaster.Archaeology 45(6):44-45.
14.Lonnie G.Thompson,et al(1985),A 1500-Year Recordof Tropical Precipitation in Ice Core Record of Climate.Hu-man Ecology 22:83-85.
15.Crystal B.Schaaf(1988),Establishment and Demise ofMoche V:Assessment of the Climatic Impact.M.A.The-sis.Department of Anthropology,Harvard University Exten-sion School.
16.I.Shimada,et al.(1991),Cultural Impacts of SevereDroughts in the Prehistoric Andes:Application of a 1,500-Year Ice Core Precipitation Record.World Archaeology22:247-70.
17.M.B.Abbott,et al(1997),A 3500 14C Yr High-Reso-lution Record of Water-Level Changes in Lake Titicaca,Bolivia/Peru.Quaternary Research 47:169-80.
18.Michael W.Binford,et al(1997),Climatic Variation andthe Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization.Quaternary Re-search 47:235-48.
19.Lonnie G.Thompson,et al(1995),Late Glacier Stageand Holocene Ice Core Records from Huascaran Peru.Sci-ence 269:46-50.
20.Terry L.Jones,et al(1999),Environmental ImperativesReconsidered:Demographic Crises in Western North Ameri-ca During the Medieval Climatic Anomaly.Current Anthro-pology 40:137-70.
21.L.M.Raab and Daniel O.Larson(1997),Medieval Cli-matic Anomaly and Punctuated.Cultural Evolution inCoastal Southern California.American Antiquity 62:319-36.
22.J.E.Arnold(1997),Bigger Boats,Crowded Creek-banks:Environmental Stresses in Perspective.AmericanAntiquity 62:337-39.
23.S.Stine(1994),Extreme and Persistent Drought in Cali-fornia and Patagonia during Medieval Times.Nature 369:546-49.
24.A.E.Douglass(1929),The Secrets of the SouthwestSolved by Talkative Tree-Rings.National Geographic 54:737-70.
25.C.R.Ortloff and A.L.Kolata(1993),Climate and Col-lapse:Agro-Ecological Perspectives on the Decline of theTiwanaku State.Journal of Archaeological Sciences 20:195-221.
26.German Poveda and Oscar J.Mesa(1997),Tropical SouthAmerica and Large Scale Ocean-Atmospheric Phenomena.Journal of Climate 10:2690-2701.
27.Charles J.Vorosmarty,et al.(1989),Continental ScaleModels of Water Balance and Fluvial Transport:An Appli-cation to South America.Journal of Global Biochemical Cy-cles 3:241-65.
28.ONERN(Oficina Nacional de Evaluacion de Recursos Nat-urales)1976 Invenario,evalucacion,y uso racional del re-cursos naturales de la costa.Vol.II Informe y anexos.Li-ma:ONERN.1985 Recursos hidraulicos del sur del Peru.Lima:ONERN.
29.M.Dillion,et al.(1999),The Lomas Formations ofCoastal Peru:Composition and Biographic History.Paperpresented at the Field Museum of Natural History Symposi-um on EL Nino,Chicago.
30.Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco(1981),El LitoralPeruana.Lima:Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
31.Michael E.Moseley and R.A.Feldman(1982b),Hydro-logical Dynamics and the Evolution of Field Formeters andUse:Resolving the Knapp-Smith Controversy.AmericanAntiquity 49:403-8.
32.Shelly Burges.1991 Patterns of Anemia in Chiribaya:ALate Intermediate Population in Southern Peru.Paper pres-ented at the American Anthropological Association 90th An-nual Meeting,Chicago.1992 Health at Algodonal:A Pre-liminary Report.Paper presented at the Society for Ameri-can Archaeology 57th Annual Meeting,Pittsburgh.
33.Sloan Williams(1990),The Skeletal Biology of Estuquina:A Late Intermediate Period Site in Southern Peru.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,Northwestern Universi-ty.
34.John Verano(1987),Cranial Microvariation at Pacatana-mu:A Study of Cemetery Population Variability.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,University of California-Los Angeles.
35.Gordon Willey(1953),Prehistoric Settlement Patterns inthe Viru Valley,Peru.Bureau of American Ethnology Bul-letin No.155.Washington,DC:Smithsonian Institution.
36.David Wilson(1988),Prehispanic Settlement Patterns inthe Lower Sanata Valley,Peru.Washington DC:Smithso-nian Institution.
37.B.Owen.1993a Early Ceramic Settlement in the CoastalOsmore Valley:Preliminary Report.Paper presented at theInstitute of Andean Studies Annual Meeting.1993b A Mod-el of Multiethnicity:State Collapse,Competition,and So-cial Complexity from Tiwanaku to Chiribaya in the OsmoreValley,Peru.Ph.D,diss.Department of Anthropology,University of California-Los Angeles.
38.M.C.Lozada(1998),The Senorio of Chiribaya:A Bio-Archaeological Study in the Osmore Drainage of SouthernPeru.Ph.D.Disser.Department of Anthropology,Uni-versity of Chicago.
39.D.Satterlee(1993),Impact of A Fourteenth-Century ELNino Flood on an Indigenous Population near Ilo,Peru.Ph.D.Disser.Department of Anthropology,University ofFlorida.
40.Michael E.Moseley and Eric Deeds(1982),The Land inFront of Chan Chan:Agrarian Expansion,Reform and Col-lapse in the Moche Valley.In Chan Chan:Andean DesertCity.M.E.Moseley and K.C.Day,eds.Pp.25-53.Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press.
41.Michael E.Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins,eds.(1990),The Northern Dynasties:Kingship and Statecraftin Chimor.Washington,DC:Dumbarton Oaks.
42.Michael E.Moseley,et al.(1991),Space Shuttle Image-ry of Recent Catastrophic Change along the Arid AndeanCoast.In Paleoshorelines and Prehistory:An Investigationof Method.L.L.Johnson and M.Stright,eds.Pp.215-35.Boca Raton,FL:CRC Press.
43.Michael W.Binford et al.(1998),Climate Variation andthe Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization.Quaternary Re-search 47:235-48.
44.Alan L.Kolata(1993),The Tiwanaku:Portrait of An An-dean Civilization.Cambridge:Blackwell.
45.J.Albarracin-Jordan and J.E.Mathews(1990),Asen-tamientos prehispanic del valle de Tiwannaku.La Paz,Bo-livia:Producciones Cima.
46.Geoffrey O.Seltzer(1991),Glacial History and ClimaticChange in the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,University of Minnesota.
47.Geoffrey O.Seltzer and Christine A.Hastorf(1990),Cli-matic Change and Its Effects on Prehistoric Agriculture inthe Peruvian Andes.Journal of Field Archaeology 17:397-417.
48.Christine A.Hastorff(1993),Agriculture and the Onsetof Political Inequity before the Inka.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
49.John V.Murra(1975),The Vertical Control of a Maxi-mum of Ecologic Tiers in the Economies of Andean Socie-ties.In Formacines economicas y politicas del mundo andi-no.Lima:Instituto de Esudios Peruanos.
50.John Earls(1996),Rotative Rank Hierarchy and Recur-sive Organization:The Andean Peasant Community as a Vi-able System.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society24:297-320
51.Benjamin Orlove and David Guillet(1985),Theoreticaland Methodological Considerations on the Study of MountainPeople Reflections on the Idea of Subsistence Type and theRole of History in Human Ecology.Mountain Research andDevelopment 5:3-18.
52.Linda Cordell(2000),Aftermath of Chaos in the PuebloSouthwest.In Environmental Disaster and the Archaeologyof Human Response.Garth Bawden and Richard MaitinReycraft,eds.Pp.179-94.Anthropological Papers no.7.Albuquerque:Maxwell Museum of Anthropology.
53.B.Bauer(1992),The Development of the Inca State.Ith-aca:Cornell University Press.LeVine 1992
54.J.H.Rowe(1946),Inca Culture at the Time of theSpanish Conquest.In Handbook of South American Indi-ans,vol.2,the Andean Civilization.J.Steward,ed.Pp.183-330.Washington DC:U.S.Government Print-ing Office.
55.Loonie G.Thompson et al.(1994),Glacial Records ofGlobal Climate:A 1500-Year Ice Core Record of Climate.Human Ecology 22:83-95.
2.John Earls(1996),Rotative Rank Hierarchy and RecursiveOrganization:The Andean Peasant Community as a ViableSystem.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 24:297-320.
3.Virginia Garcia-Acosta(2001),“Historical Disaster Re-search”,in Susanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.49-66.
4.J.Terrence McCabe(2001),“Impact of and Response toDrought among Turkana Pastoralists:Implications for An-thropological Theory and Hazards Research”,in SusannaHoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School ofAmerican Research Press,Pp.213-36.
5.Susanna M.Hoffman(2001),“The Monster and the Moth-er:The Symbolism of Disaster”,in Susanna Hoffman andAnthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:theAnthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Re-search Press,Pp.113-42.
6.Christopher L.Dyer(2001),“Punctuated Entropy as Cul-ture-Induced Change:The Case of the Exxon Valdez OilSpill”,in Susanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.157-86.
7.S.Ravi Rajan(2001),“Missing Expertise,Categorical Pol-itics,and Chronic Disasters:The Case of Bhopal”,in Su-sanna Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastro-phe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School of American Research Press,Pp.237--60.
8.Gregory V.Button(2001),“Popular Media Reframing ofMan-Made Disasters:A Cautionary Tale”,in SusannaHoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith,eds,Catastrophe&Culture:the Anthropology of Disaster,Santa Fe:School ofAmerican Research Press,Pp.143--58.
9.Michael E.Moseley and R.A.Feldman(1982a),“Vivarcon crisis:Percepcion hummana de proceso y tiempo.Re-vista del Museo Nacional 46:267-87.
10.Michael E.Moseley(1992),The Incas and Their Ances-tors.London:Thames and Hudson.
11.David K.Keefer(1994),The Importance of Earthquake-Induced Landslides to Long-Term Slope Erosion and Slope-Failure Hazards in Seismically Active Regions.Geomor-phology 10:265-84.
12.W.H.,Quinnn,V.T.Neal and S.E.Antunez deMayolo(1987),El Nino Occurrences over the Past Fourand a Half Centuries.Journal of Geophysical Research 92:14449-61.
13.Michael E.Moseley and J.R.Richardson III(1992).Doomed by Disaster.Archaeology 45(6):44-45.
14.Lonnie G.Thompson,et al(1985),A 1500-Year Recordof Tropical Precipitation in Ice Core Record of Climate.Hu-man Ecology 22:83-85.
15.Crystal B.Schaaf(1988),Establishment and Demise ofMoche V:Assessment of the Climatic Impact.M.A.The-sis.Department of Anthropology,Harvard University Exten-sion School.
16.I.Shimada,et al.(1991),Cultural Impacts of SevereDroughts in the Prehistoric Andes:Application of a 1,500-Year Ice Core Precipitation Record.World Archaeology22:247-70.
17.M.B.Abbott,et al(1997),A 3500 14C Yr High-Reso-lution Record of Water-Level Changes in Lake Titicaca,Bolivia/Peru.Quaternary Research 47:169-80.
18.Michael W.Binford,et al(1997),Climatic Variation andthe Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization.Quaternary Re-search 47:235-48.
19.Lonnie G.Thompson,et al(1995),Late Glacier Stageand Holocene Ice Core Records from Huascaran Peru.Sci-ence 269:46-50.
20.Terry L.Jones,et al(1999),Environmental ImperativesReconsidered:Demographic Crises in Western North Ameri-ca During the Medieval Climatic Anomaly.Current Anthro-pology 40:137-70.
21.L.M.Raab and Daniel O.Larson(1997),Medieval Cli-matic Anomaly and Punctuated.Cultural Evolution inCoastal Southern California.American Antiquity 62:319-36.
22.J.E.Arnold(1997),Bigger Boats,Crowded Creek-banks:Environmental Stresses in Perspective.AmericanAntiquity 62:337-39.
23.S.Stine(1994),Extreme and Persistent Drought in Cali-fornia and Patagonia during Medieval Times.Nature 369:546-49.
24.A.E.Douglass(1929),The Secrets of the SouthwestSolved by Talkative Tree-Rings.National Geographic 54:737-70.
25.C.R.Ortloff and A.L.Kolata(1993),Climate and Col-lapse:Agro-Ecological Perspectives on the Decline of theTiwanaku State.Journal of Archaeological Sciences 20:195-221.
26.German Poveda and Oscar J.Mesa(1997),Tropical SouthAmerica and Large Scale Ocean-Atmospheric Phenomena.Journal of Climate 10:2690-2701.
27.Charles J.Vorosmarty,et al.(1989),Continental ScaleModels of Water Balance and Fluvial Transport:An Appli-cation to South America.Journal of Global Biochemical Cy-cles 3:241-65.
28.ONERN(Oficina Nacional de Evaluacion de Recursos Nat-urales)1976 Invenario,evalucacion,y uso racional del re-cursos naturales de la costa.Vol.II Informe y anexos.Li-ma:ONERN.1985 Recursos hidraulicos del sur del Peru.Lima:ONERN.
29.M.Dillion,et al.(1999),The Lomas Formations ofCoastal Peru:Composition and Biographic History.Paperpresented at the Field Museum of Natural History Symposi-um on EL Nino,Chicago.
30.Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco(1981),El LitoralPeruana.Lima:Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
31.Michael E.Moseley and R.A.Feldman(1982b),Hydro-logical Dynamics and the Evolution of Field Formeters andUse:Resolving the Knapp-Smith Controversy.AmericanAntiquity 49:403-8.
32.Shelly Burges.1991 Patterns of Anemia in Chiribaya:ALate Intermediate Population in Southern Peru.Paper pres-ented at the American Anthropological Association 90th An-nual Meeting,Chicago.1992 Health at Algodonal:A Pre-liminary Report.Paper presented at the Society for Ameri-can Archaeology 57th Annual Meeting,Pittsburgh.
33.Sloan Williams(1990),The Skeletal Biology of Estuquina:A Late Intermediate Period Site in Southern Peru.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,Northwestern Universi-ty.
34.John Verano(1987),Cranial Microvariation at Pacatana-mu:A Study of Cemetery Population Variability.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,University of California-Los Angeles.
35.Gordon Willey(1953),Prehistoric Settlement Patterns inthe Viru Valley,Peru.Bureau of American Ethnology Bul-letin No.155.Washington,DC:Smithsonian Institution.
36.David Wilson(1988),Prehispanic Settlement Patterns inthe Lower Sanata Valley,Peru.Washington DC:Smithso-nian Institution.
37.B.Owen.1993a Early Ceramic Settlement in the CoastalOsmore Valley:Preliminary Report.Paper presented at theInstitute of Andean Studies Annual Meeting.1993b A Mod-el of Multiethnicity:State Collapse,Competition,and So-cial Complexity from Tiwanaku to Chiribaya in the OsmoreValley,Peru.Ph.D,diss.Department of Anthropology,University of California-Los Angeles.
38.M.C.Lozada(1998),The Senorio of Chiribaya:A Bio-Archaeological Study in the Osmore Drainage of SouthernPeru.Ph.D.Disser.Department of Anthropology,Uni-versity of Chicago.
39.D.Satterlee(1993),Impact of A Fourteenth-Century ELNino Flood on an Indigenous Population near Ilo,Peru.Ph.D.Disser.Department of Anthropology,University ofFlorida.
40.Michael E.Moseley and Eric Deeds(1982),The Land inFront of Chan Chan:Agrarian Expansion,Reform and Col-lapse in the Moche Valley.In Chan Chan:Andean DesertCity.M.E.Moseley and K.C.Day,eds.Pp.25-53.Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press.
41.Michael E.Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins,eds.(1990),The Northern Dynasties:Kingship and Statecraftin Chimor.Washington,DC:Dumbarton Oaks.
42.Michael E.Moseley,et al.(1991),Space Shuttle Image-ry of Recent Catastrophic Change along the Arid AndeanCoast.In Paleoshorelines and Prehistory:An Investigationof Method.L.L.Johnson and M.Stright,eds.Pp.215-35.Boca Raton,FL:CRC Press.
43.Michael W.Binford et al.(1998),Climate Variation andthe Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization.Quaternary Re-search 47:235-48.
44.Alan L.Kolata(1993),The Tiwanaku:Portrait of An An-dean Civilization.Cambridge:Blackwell.
45.J.Albarracin-Jordan and J.E.Mathews(1990),Asen-tamientos prehispanic del valle de Tiwannaku.La Paz,Bo-livia:Producciones Cima.
46.Geoffrey O.Seltzer(1991),Glacial History and ClimaticChange in the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes.Ph.D.Diss.Department of Anthropology,University of Minnesota.
47.Geoffrey O.Seltzer and Christine A.Hastorf(1990),Cli-matic Change and Its Effects on Prehistoric Agriculture inthe Peruvian Andes.Journal of Field Archaeology 17:397-417.
48.Christine A.Hastorff(1993),Agriculture and the Onsetof Political Inequity before the Inka.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
49.John V.Murra(1975),The Vertical Control of a Maxi-mum of Ecologic Tiers in the Economies of Andean Socie-ties.In Formacines economicas y politicas del mundo andi-no.Lima:Instituto de Esudios Peruanos.
50.John Earls(1996),Rotative Rank Hierarchy and Recur-sive Organization:The Andean Peasant Community as a Vi-able System.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society24:297-320
51.Benjamin Orlove and David Guillet(1985),Theoreticaland Methodological Considerations on the Study of MountainPeople Reflections on the Idea of Subsistence Type and theRole of History in Human Ecology.Mountain Research andDevelopment 5:3-18.
52.Linda Cordell(2000),Aftermath of Chaos in the PuebloSouthwest.In Environmental Disaster and the Archaeologyof Human Response.Garth Bawden and Richard MaitinReycraft,eds.Pp.179-94.Anthropological Papers no.7.Albuquerque:Maxwell Museum of Anthropology.
53.B.Bauer(1992),The Development of the Inca State.Ith-aca:Cornell University Press.LeVine 1992
54.J.H.Rowe(1946),Inca Culture at the Time of theSpanish Conquest.In Handbook of South American Indi-ans,vol.2,the Andean Civilization.J.Steward,ed.Pp.183-330.Washington DC:U.S.Government Print-ing Office.
55.Loonie G.Thompson et al.(1994),Glacial Records ofGlobal Climate:A 1500-Year Ice Core Record of Climate.Human Ecology 22:83-95.
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