生育保障制度的国际改革趋势与启示
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摘要
生育保障有助于促进母亲和儿童的健康、营养和福祉,并有助于促进就业市场的性别平等。为更好地发挥生育保障的作用,近年来世界各国的生育保障制度主要体现出以下改革发展趋势:一、普遍通过立法将生育保障纳入社会保障体系以替代雇主责任体系;二、通过多元集合型融资计划进一步扩大生育保障的覆盖范围;三、提高女性带薪产假的受益期限和现金受益水平以保障受益的充足性;四、立法赋予父亲休假权并通过多元机制设计提升父亲的休假率;五、进一步丰富生育保障的内容提供从产前到产后的全过程保障;六、完善机制设计使生育保障与就业市场性别平等目标之间相辅相成互为促进。当前在我国积极构建"生育友好型"社会背景下,上述国际改革经验对我国生育保险制度的立法完善和机制设计优化具有重要的借鉴作用。
Maternity protection contributes to the health,nutrition and well-being of mothers and children as well as gender equality in the employment market. In order to better play the multiple roles of maternity protection,in recent years,the worldwide maternity protection system has shown the following main reform trends: 1) universally incorporating maternity protection into the social security system through legislation to replace employer responsibility system; 2) further expanding the coverage of maternity protection through multiple collective financing schemes; 3) improving women's paid maternity leave beneficiary period and cash benefit level to ensure the adequacy of benefits; 4) increasing the rate of paternity leave and parental leave for fathers through various mechanism designs; 5) further enriching the contents of maternity protection to provide a full range of protection from pre-natal to post-natal; 6) improving the mechanism design to achieve mutual promotion between maternity protection and gender equality goals. Under the background of construction "fertility-friendly society",the experience of above reforms can provide important reference for the legislative improvement and mechanism design reform of China's future maternity insurance system.
Maternity protection contributes to the health,nutrition and well-being of mothers and children as well as gender equality in the employment market. In order to better play the multiple roles of maternity protection,in recent years,the worldwide maternity protection system has shown the following main reform trends: 1) universally incorporating maternity protection into the social security system through legislation to replace employer responsibility system; 2) further expanding the coverage of maternity protection through multiple collective financing schemes; 3) improving women's paid maternity leave beneficiary period and cash benefit level to ensure the adequacy of benefits; 4) increasing the rate of paternity leave and parental leave for fathers through various mechanism designs; 5) further enriching the contents of maternity protection to provide a full range of protection from pre-natal to post-natal; 6) improving the mechanism design to achieve mutual promotion between maternity protection and gender equality goals. Under the background of construction "fertility-friendly society",the experience of above reforms can provide important reference for the legislative improvement and mechanism design reform of China's future maternity insurance system.
引文
(1)World Health Organization(WHO),World Health Statistics 2017:Monitoring Health for the SDGs,Geneva:WHO,2017,p.29.
(2)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Geneva:ILO,2017,p.28.
(1)这里未考虑自营职业者,将自营职业者纳入生育保障计划的国家,缴费主体还应包括自营职业者。
(2)在采取社会保险计划的国家中,极少数国家雇主无缴费义务,如波兰。
(3)在采取社会保险计划的国家中,少数国家雇员无缴费义务,如冰岛、意大利、瑞典、捷克、俄罗斯。
(4)新西兰采取的是全面覆盖与社会救助相结合的生育保障制度。
(5)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,p.31.
(1)根据美国社会保障局(SSA)发布的2017-2018世界各洲社会保障计划系列报告整理。
(1)52周假期均可由父母双方分享。
(2)18周带薪产假按联邦最低工资水平进行支付,符合税收减免资格的家庭可获得额外的补贴。
(3)前面45天按100%的工资替代率由雇主支付;后面45天按50%的工资替代率由社会保险体系支付。
(4)工资替代率的最高档为70%,工资收入超过特定水平的部分工资替代率可能降低为40%或25%。
(5)前30天按82%的工资替代率进行支付,第31天至最长15周(多胞胎19周)按75%的工资替代率进行支付。
(6)受益期限为120天或150天,其中10天为父亲的专属假期,因而这里母亲的带薪假期期限扣除10天,多胞胎情况下可以延长。
(7)可按100%的工资替代率支付120天,或按80%的工资替代率支付150天。
(8)父母亲总付薪假期共49周或59周,其中10周为父亲的专属假期,因而这里考虑的是母亲的带薪产假扣除10周,其中母亲的专属假期为至少9周。
(9)可按100%的工资替代率支付39周,或按80%的工资替代率支付49周。
(10)其中母亲的专属假期为2周,其余假期可由父母进行分享,最长37周。
(11)前6周工资替代率为90%,后面按90%的工资替代率或固定金额两者孰低确定。
(1)根据美国社会保障局(SSA)发布的2017-2018世界各洲社会保障计划系列报告整理。
(2)多胞胎情况下延长至18天。
(3)若父母均参与就业符合受益条件,可双方分享;若母亲不符合受益条件,可由符合受益条件的父亲享有。
(4)可按100%的工资替代率支付26周,或按80%的工资替代率支付36周。
(5)若父母双方均有受益资格,可获得额外三个月的可共享奖励假期。
(6)父母亲的假期共120天,除母亲的专属假期42天,父亲的专属假期15天外,其余63天可由父母自主选择分配。
(7)不包括星期天和法定节假日。
(8)不包括星期天和法定节假日,多胞胎情况下再延长60天。
(1)Pall,K.“Leave Policies&Research Country Reports:Estonia Country Note”,April 2018,https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/country_notes/2018/FINAL.Estonia2018.pdf,2019-02-16.
(2)International Network on Leave Policies and Research(INLPR),“International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research 2012”,October 2012,https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/annual_reviews/2012_annual_review_october.pdf,2018-10-05.
(3)Brandth,B.and Kvande,E.,“Flexible Work and Flexible Fathers”,Work Employment&Society,Vol.15,No.2,2001,p.251-267.
(4)European Union(EU),“Reconciliation between Work,Private and Family Life in the European Union”,October27,2009,https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5705547/KS-78-09-908-EN.PDF/6180b5e6-e482-4d5f-a681-6a9bce05d733,2018-11-19.
(5)Hegewisch,A.and Gornick,J.C.,“The Impact of Work-family Policies on Women’s Employment:A Review of Research from OECD Countries”,Community,Work&Family,Vol.4,No.2,2011,p.119-138.
(1)ILO,“Resolution Concerning Gender Equality at the Heart of Decent Work”,adopted by the ILO at its 98th Session on 17 June 2009,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--dgreports/--gender/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_187671.pdf,2018-08-27.
(2)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Geneva:ILO,2014,p.41.
(3)除非国家法律法规有要求。
(1)Anderson,J.W.,Johnstone,B.M.and Remley,D.T.,“Breastfeeding and Cognitive Development:A Meta-analysis”,American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,Vol.70,No.4,1999,p.525-535.
(2)Dermer,A.,“A Well-kept Secret:Breastfeeding’s Benefits to Mothers”,New Beginnings,Vol.18,No.4,2001,p.124-127.
(3)数据来源:根据ILO Working Conditions Laws Database-Maternity Protection数据库资料整理,http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase
(4)数据来源:同上。
(1)United Nations Development Programme and ILO,“Maternity Protection in the Context of Work-life Reconciliation for Men and Women,Comparative Analysis of Three European Countries’Maternity Protection Systems”,May28,2011,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--urope/-ro-geneva/--sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_312505.pdf,2018-08-19.
(2)International Monetary Fund(IMF),“Women,Work,and the Economy:Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity”,December 1,2013.http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf,2018-11-16.
(3)数据来源:OECD,OECD Family database,http://www.oecd.org/els/family/oecdfamilydatabase.htm.
(4)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Ibid.,p.29.
(5)其余两个关键方面为:女性带薪产假的受益期限应达到至少14周,工资替代率应达到三分之二。
(6)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.145.
(1)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.31.
(2)Ibid.,p.28.
(3)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Ibid.,p.116.
(4)Ibid.,p.11.
(1)Bar-Yam,N.B.and Darby,L.,“Fathers and Breastfeeding:A Review of the Literature”,Journal of Human Lactation,Vol.13,No.1,1997,p.45-50.
(2)Rempel,L.A.and Rempel,J.K.,“The Breastfeeding Team:The Role of Involved Fathers in the Breastfeeding Family”,Journal of Human Lactation,Vol.27,No.2,2011,p.115-121.
(3)O’Brien,M.,“Fathers,Parental Leave Policies,and Infant Quality of Life:International Perspectives and Policy Impact”,The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.624,No.1,2009,p.190-213.
(4)United Nations(UN),“Men in Families and Family Policies in a Changing World,New York”,August 2012,https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/family/docs/men-in-families.pdf,2018-09-22.
(5)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.29.
(1)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.243.
(2)中国人力资源和社会保障部:《2017年度人力资源和社会保障事业发展统计公报》,http://www.mohrss.gov.cn/ghcws/BHCSWgongzuodongtai/201805/W020180521568486691826.pdf,2018-12-18.
(1)Orozco Corona,M.E.and Gammage,S.,“Cash Transfer Programmes,Poverty Reduction and Women’s Economic Empowerment:Experience from Mexico”,August 23,2017,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/publication/wcms_571096.pdf,2018-09-03.
(2)United Nations Development Programme and ILO,Maternity Protection in the Context of Work-life Reconciliation for Men and Women,Comparative Analysis of Three European Countries’Maternity Protection Systems,Ibid.,p.20.
(2)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Geneva:ILO,2017,p.28.
(1)这里未考虑自营职业者,将自营职业者纳入生育保障计划的国家,缴费主体还应包括自营职业者。
(2)在采取社会保险计划的国家中,极少数国家雇主无缴费义务,如波兰。
(3)在采取社会保险计划的国家中,少数国家雇员无缴费义务,如冰岛、意大利、瑞典、捷克、俄罗斯。
(4)新西兰采取的是全面覆盖与社会救助相结合的生育保障制度。
(5)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,p.31.
(1)根据美国社会保障局(SSA)发布的2017-2018世界各洲社会保障计划系列报告整理。
(1)52周假期均可由父母双方分享。
(2)18周带薪产假按联邦最低工资水平进行支付,符合税收减免资格的家庭可获得额外的补贴。
(3)前面45天按100%的工资替代率由雇主支付;后面45天按50%的工资替代率由社会保险体系支付。
(4)工资替代率的最高档为70%,工资收入超过特定水平的部分工资替代率可能降低为40%或25%。
(5)前30天按82%的工资替代率进行支付,第31天至最长15周(多胞胎19周)按75%的工资替代率进行支付。
(6)受益期限为120天或150天,其中10天为父亲的专属假期,因而这里母亲的带薪假期期限扣除10天,多胞胎情况下可以延长。
(7)可按100%的工资替代率支付120天,或按80%的工资替代率支付150天。
(8)父母亲总付薪假期共49周或59周,其中10周为父亲的专属假期,因而这里考虑的是母亲的带薪产假扣除10周,其中母亲的专属假期为至少9周。
(9)可按100%的工资替代率支付39周,或按80%的工资替代率支付49周。
(10)其中母亲的专属假期为2周,其余假期可由父母进行分享,最长37周。
(11)前6周工资替代率为90%,后面按90%的工资替代率或固定金额两者孰低确定。
(1)根据美国社会保障局(SSA)发布的2017-2018世界各洲社会保障计划系列报告整理。
(2)多胞胎情况下延长至18天。
(3)若父母均参与就业符合受益条件,可双方分享;若母亲不符合受益条件,可由符合受益条件的父亲享有。
(4)可按100%的工资替代率支付26周,或按80%的工资替代率支付36周。
(5)若父母双方均有受益资格,可获得额外三个月的可共享奖励假期。
(6)父母亲的假期共120天,除母亲的专属假期42天,父亲的专属假期15天外,其余63天可由父母自主选择分配。
(7)不包括星期天和法定节假日。
(8)不包括星期天和法定节假日,多胞胎情况下再延长60天。
(1)Pall,K.“Leave Policies&Research Country Reports:Estonia Country Note”,April 2018,https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/country_notes/2018/FINAL.Estonia2018.pdf,2019-02-16.
(2)International Network on Leave Policies and Research(INLPR),“International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research 2012”,October 2012,https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/annual_reviews/2012_annual_review_october.pdf,2018-10-05.
(3)Brandth,B.and Kvande,E.,“Flexible Work and Flexible Fathers”,Work Employment&Society,Vol.15,No.2,2001,p.251-267.
(4)European Union(EU),“Reconciliation between Work,Private and Family Life in the European Union”,October27,2009,https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5705547/KS-78-09-908-EN.PDF/6180b5e6-e482-4d5f-a681-6a9bce05d733,2018-11-19.
(5)Hegewisch,A.and Gornick,J.C.,“The Impact of Work-family Policies on Women’s Employment:A Review of Research from OECD Countries”,Community,Work&Family,Vol.4,No.2,2011,p.119-138.
(1)ILO,“Resolution Concerning Gender Equality at the Heart of Decent Work”,adopted by the ILO at its 98th Session on 17 June 2009,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--dgreports/--gender/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_187671.pdf,2018-08-27.
(2)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Geneva:ILO,2014,p.41.
(3)除非国家法律法规有要求。
(1)Anderson,J.W.,Johnstone,B.M.and Remley,D.T.,“Breastfeeding and Cognitive Development:A Meta-analysis”,American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,Vol.70,No.4,1999,p.525-535.
(2)Dermer,A.,“A Well-kept Secret:Breastfeeding’s Benefits to Mothers”,New Beginnings,Vol.18,No.4,2001,p.124-127.
(3)数据来源:根据ILO Working Conditions Laws Database-Maternity Protection数据库资料整理,http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase
(4)数据来源:同上。
(1)United Nations Development Programme and ILO,“Maternity Protection in the Context of Work-life Reconciliation for Men and Women,Comparative Analysis of Three European Countries’Maternity Protection Systems”,May28,2011,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--urope/-ro-geneva/--sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_312505.pdf,2018-08-19.
(2)International Monetary Fund(IMF),“Women,Work,and the Economy:Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity”,December 1,2013.http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf,2018-11-16.
(3)数据来源:OECD,OECD Family database,http://www.oecd.org/els/family/oecdfamilydatabase.htm.
(4)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Ibid.,p.29.
(5)其余两个关键方面为:女性带薪产假的受益期限应达到至少14周,工资替代率应达到三分之二。
(6)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.145.
(1)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.31.
(2)Ibid.,p.28.
(3)ILO,Maternity and Paternity at Work:Law and Practice across the World,Ibid.,p.116.
(4)Ibid.,p.11.
(1)Bar-Yam,N.B.and Darby,L.,“Fathers and Breastfeeding:A Review of the Literature”,Journal of Human Lactation,Vol.13,No.1,1997,p.45-50.
(2)Rempel,L.A.and Rempel,J.K.,“The Breastfeeding Team:The Role of Involved Fathers in the Breastfeeding Family”,Journal of Human Lactation,Vol.27,No.2,2011,p.115-121.
(3)O’Brien,M.,“Fathers,Parental Leave Policies,and Infant Quality of Life:International Perspectives and Policy Impact”,The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.624,No.1,2009,p.190-213.
(4)United Nations(UN),“Men in Families and Family Policies in a Changing World,New York”,August 2012,https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/family/docs/men-in-families.pdf,2018-09-22.
(5)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.29.
(1)ILO,World Social Protection Report 2017-19:Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals,Ibid.,p.243.
(2)中国人力资源和社会保障部:《2017年度人力资源和社会保障事业发展统计公报》,http://www.mohrss.gov.cn/ghcws/BHCSWgongzuodongtai/201805/W020180521568486691826.pdf,2018-12-18.
(1)Orozco Corona,M.E.and Gammage,S.,“Cash Transfer Programmes,Poverty Reduction and Women’s Economic Empowerment:Experience from Mexico”,August 23,2017,https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/publication/wcms_571096.pdf,2018-09-03.
(2)United Nations Development Programme and ILO,Maternity Protection in the Context of Work-life Reconciliation for Men and Women,Comparative Analysis of Three European Countries’Maternity Protection Systems,Ibid.,p.20.