智慧推理:概念、测量、影响因素及展望
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摘要
智慧推理源于新皮亚杰主义与柏林智慧模式的研究。研究者进一步整合其内涵,不断推进与革新测量方法。年龄、文化与情境是影响智慧推理的主要因素。未来研究重点应包括考察物慧中的智慧推理内涵,开发"面对面"式的测量方法,探究智慧推理的脑神经机制并比较其与一般抽象推理的不同。
Wisdom involves the use of certain types of pragmatic reasoning to navigate important challenges in social life.Grossmann and his colleagues synthesized these facets of cognition in a framework of wise reasoning which was mainly based on the neo-Piagetian scholarship and Berlin Wisdom Paradigm.They included(1) Intellectual humility or recognition of limits of own knowledge,(2) Appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand,(3) Sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations,and(4) Compromise or integration of different opinions.Opposed to abstract reasoning,wise reasoning is influenced by life experiences and situated in a social context.There are some differences between abstract reasoning and wise reasoning.For example,unlike wise reasoning,abstract reasoning is insufficient for solving ill-defined socioemotional problems.Initially the measurement of wise reasoning includes fictitious conflicts and a structured interview.Here is the process:Firstly,participant finishes reading descriptions of some social conflicts.Then the interviewer asks participants to think out loud about the conflict,with their reflection guided via some questions(e.g.,"What do you think will happen after the event you read about?" "Why do you think it will happen this way?" and"What do you think should be done?") from the interviewer.Now,it can be measured by a Situated Wise Reasoning Scale(SWIS) which is based on event-construction.Firstly,the researcher asks participants to recall a recent interpersonal conflict and answer a number of questions about the situation and their subjective experience,which serve to increase accuracy of their recall.Then,they fill out self-report items measuring to what extent they used wise-reasoning strategies in dealing with the conflict.Some research results show that wise reasoning is related to some factors,such as age,culture and situations.Firstly,it is a common lay belief that wisdom improves into old age.Specifically,older people are believed to show better competencies for reasoning about social conflicts.Research shows that relative to young and middle-aged people,older people make more use of wise-reasoning strategies.Secondly,People from different cultures vary in the ways they approach social conflicts,with Japanese being more motivated to maintain interpersonal harmony and avoid conflicts than Americans do.Such cultural differences influence persons' wise reasoning about social conflict.Japanese show greater use of wise-reasoning strategies than Americans do for the same age group.Thirdly,Wise reasoning varies from one situation to another,with self-focused contexts inhibiting wise thinking.Experiments can show ways to buffer thinking against bias in cases where self-interests are unavoidable.Specifically,Researchers use various ways which can promote ego-decentering to improve the ability of participants' wise reasoning about personally meaningful issues.The future research should focus on the following aspects:(a) To explore the concept of wise reasoning in natural wisdom and enrich its concept and structure,(b) To develop the face-to-face measurement of wise reasoning,and(c) To explore the neural mechanisms of wise reasoning and compare it with the neural mechanisms of abstract reasoning,especially the deduction reasoning.
Wisdom involves the use of certain types of pragmatic reasoning to navigate important challenges in social life.Grossmann and his colleagues synthesized these facets of cognition in a framework of wise reasoning which was mainly based on the neo-Piagetian scholarship and Berlin Wisdom Paradigm.They included(1) Intellectual humility or recognition of limits of own knowledge,(2) Appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand,(3) Sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations,and(4) Compromise or integration of different opinions.Opposed to abstract reasoning,wise reasoning is influenced by life experiences and situated in a social context.There are some differences between abstract reasoning and wise reasoning.For example,unlike wise reasoning,abstract reasoning is insufficient for solving ill-defined socioemotional problems.Initially the measurement of wise reasoning includes fictitious conflicts and a structured interview.Here is the process:Firstly,participant finishes reading descriptions of some social conflicts.Then the interviewer asks participants to think out loud about the conflict,with their reflection guided via some questions(e.g.,"What do you think will happen after the event you read about?" "Why do you think it will happen this way?" and"What do you think should be done?") from the interviewer.Now,it can be measured by a Situated Wise Reasoning Scale(SWIS) which is based on event-construction.Firstly,the researcher asks participants to recall a recent interpersonal conflict and answer a number of questions about the situation and their subjective experience,which serve to increase accuracy of their recall.Then,they fill out self-report items measuring to what extent they used wise-reasoning strategies in dealing with the conflict.Some research results show that wise reasoning is related to some factors,such as age,culture and situations.Firstly,it is a common lay belief that wisdom improves into old age.Specifically,older people are believed to show better competencies for reasoning about social conflicts.Research shows that relative to young and middle-aged people,older people make more use of wise-reasoning strategies.Secondly,People from different cultures vary in the ways they approach social conflicts,with Japanese being more motivated to maintain interpersonal harmony and avoid conflicts than Americans do.Such cultural differences influence persons' wise reasoning about social conflict.Japanese show greater use of wise-reasoning strategies than Americans do for the same age group.Thirdly,Wise reasoning varies from one situation to another,with self-focused contexts inhibiting wise thinking.Experiments can show ways to buffer thinking against bias in cases where self-interests are unavoidable.Specifically,Researchers use various ways which can promote ego-decentering to improve the ability of participants' wise reasoning about personally meaningful issues.The future research should focus on the following aspects:(a) To explore the concept of wise reasoning in natural wisdom and enrich its concept and structure,(b) To develop the face-to-face measurement of wise reasoning,and(c) To explore the neural mechanisms of wise reasoning and compare it with the neural mechanisms of abstract reasoning,especially the deduction reasoning.
引文
陈浩彬,汪凤炎.(2013).智慧:结构、类型、测量及与相关变量的关系.心理科学进展,21(1),108-117.
李天然,李晶,俞国良.(2015).自我抽离:一种适应性的自我反省视角.心理科学进展,23(6),1052-1060.
王予灵,汪凤炎.(2018).老者智否?成人智慧与年龄的关系.心理科学进展,26(1),107-117.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2014).智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究.上海:上海教育出版社.
Baltes,P.B.,&Smith,J.(2008).The fascination of wisdom:Its nature,ontogeny,and function.Perspectives on Psychological Science,3(1),56-64.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2000).Wisdom:A metaheuristic(pragmatic)to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence.American Psychologist,55(1),122-136.
Basseches,M.(1980).Dialectical schemata:A framework for the empirical study of the development of dialectical thinking.Human Development,23(6),400-421.
Basseches,M.(1984).Dialectical thinking and adult development.New Jersey,NY:Ablex.
Brienza,B.,Kung,F.Y.H.,Santos,H.C.,Bobocel,D.,&Grossmann,I.(2017).Wisdom and bias:Towards state-focused measurement of wisdom-related cognition.Retrieved from osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/p25c2
Dietze,P.,&Knowles,E.D.(2016).Social class and the motivational relevance of other human beings.Psychological Science,27(11),1517-1527.
Grimm,S.R.(2015).Wisdom.Australasian Journal of Philosophy,93(1),139-154.
Grossmann,I.(2012).Wise reasoning:Technical manual.Waterloo,ON:University of Waterloo.
Grossmann,I.(2017a).Wisdom in context.Perspectives on Psychological Science,12(2),233-257.
Grossmann,I.(2017b).Wisdom and how to cultivate it:Review of emerging evidence for a constructivist model of wise thinking.European Psychologist,22(4),233-246.
Grossmann,I.,Brienza,J.P.,&Bobocel,D.R.(2017).Wise deliberation sustains cooperation.Nature Human Behavior,1,0061.
Grossmann,I.,Gerlach,T.M.,&Denissen,J.J.A.(2016).Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges.Social Psychological and Personality Science,7,611-622.
Grossmann,I.,Karasawa,M.,Izumi,S.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2012).Aging and wisdom:Culture matters.Psychological Science,23(10),1059-1066.
Grossmann,I.,&Kross,E.(2014).Exploring Solomon’s paradox:Selfdistancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.Psychological Science,25(8),1571-1580.
Grossmann,I.,&Kung,F.Y.H.(in press).Wisdom and culture.In S.Kitayama&D.Cohen(Eds.),Handbook of cultural psychology.New York,NY:Guilford Press.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.K.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2013).A route to well-being:Intelligence versus wise reasoning.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,142(3),944-953.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.K.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Park,D.C.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2010).Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,107(16),7246-7250.
Grossmann,I.,&Varnum,M.E.W.(2015).Social class,culture,and cognition.Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(3),81-89.
Hayes,B.K.,Heit,E.,&Swendsen,H.(2010).Inductive reasoning.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews:Cognitive Science,1(2),278-292.
Hu,C.S.,Ferrari,M.,Wang,Q.D.,&Woodruff,E.(2017).Thin-slice measurement of wisdom.Frontiers in Psychology,8,1378.
Huynh,A.C.,Oakes,H.,Shay,G.R.,&McGregor,I.(2017).The wisdom in virtue:Pursuit of virtue predicts wise reasoning about personal conflicts.Psychological Science,28(12),1848-1856.
Huynh,A.C.,Yang,D.Y.J.,&Grossmann,I.(2016).The value of prospective reasoning for close relationships.Social Psychological and Personality Science,7(8),893-902.
Inhelder,B.,&Piaget,J.(1958).The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence.New York,NY:Basic Books.
Kahneman,D.,Krueger,A.B.,Schkade,D.A.,Schwarz,N.,&Stone,A.A.(2004).A survey method for characterizing daily life experience:The day reconstruction method.Science,306(5702),1776-1780.
Kramer,D.A.(1983).Post-formal operations?A need for further conceptualization.Human Development,26(2),91-105.
Kross,E.,&Grossmann,I.(2012).Boosting wisdom:Distance from the selfenhances wise reasoning,attitudes,and behavior.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,141(1),43-48.
Kunzmann,U.,&Baltes,P.B.(2005).The psychology of wisdom:Theoretical and empirical challenges.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.110-135).New York,NY:Cambridge University Press.
Kunzmann,U.,Nowak,J.,Thomas,S.,&Nestler,S.(in press).Value relativism and perspective taking are two distinct facets of wisdom-related knowledge.The Journals of Gerontology:Series B.
Li,H.Q.,&Wang,F.Y.(2017).Real-time measurement of wise personality cognition:Evidence from mouse tracking.Current Psychology,1-15.
Mickler,C.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2008).Personal wisdom:Validation and agerelated differences of a performance measure.Psychology and Aging,23(4),787-799.
Nisbett,R.E.,Peng,K.P.,Choi,I.,&Norenzayan,A.(2001).Culture and systems of thought:Holistic versus analytic cognition.Psychological Review,108(2),291-310.
Piaget,J.(1974).Experiments in contradiction.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Riegel,K.F.(1973).Dialectic operations:The final period of cognitive development.Human Development,16(5),346-370.
Sanders,J.D.,&Jeste,D.V.(2013).Neurobiological basis of personal wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.99-112).Dordrecht:Springer.
Staudinger,U.M.,&Glück,J.(2011).Psychological wisdom research:Commonalities and differences in a growing field.Annual Review of Psychology,62(1),215-241.
Staudinger,U.M.,Lopez,D.,&Baltes,P.B.(1997).The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance:Intelligence,personality,and more?Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,23(11),1200-1214.
Stephens,N.M.,Markus,H.R.,&Phillips,L.T.(2014).Social class culture cycles:How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality.Annual Review of Psychology,65(1),611-634.
Sternberg,R.J.(1998).A balance theory of wisdom.Review of General Psychology,2(4),347-365.
Sternberg,R.J.(2004a).Words to the wise about wisdom?A commentary on Ardelt’s critique of Baltes.Human Development,47(5),286-289.
Sternberg,R.J.(2004b).Why smart people can be so foolish.European Psychologist,9(3),145-150.
Varnum,M.E.W.,Blais,C.,Hampton,R.S.,&Brewer,G.A.(2015).Social class affects neural empathic responses.Culture and Brain,3(2),122-130.
Vervaeke,J.,&Ferraro,L.(2013).Relevance,meaning and the cognitive science of wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.21-51).Dordrecht:Springer.
Wang,F.,Peng,K.P.,Bai,Y.,Li,R.,Zhu,Y.,Sun,P.,et al.(2016).The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex modulates dialectical self-thinking.Frontiers in Psychology,7,152.
李天然,李晶,俞国良.(2015).自我抽离:一种适应性的自我反省视角.心理科学进展,23(6),1052-1060.
王予灵,汪凤炎.(2018).老者智否?成人智慧与年龄的关系.心理科学进展,26(1),107-117.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2014).智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究.上海:上海教育出版社.
Baltes,P.B.,&Smith,J.(2008).The fascination of wisdom:Its nature,ontogeny,and function.Perspectives on Psychological Science,3(1),56-64.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2000).Wisdom:A metaheuristic(pragmatic)to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence.American Psychologist,55(1),122-136.
Basseches,M.(1980).Dialectical schemata:A framework for the empirical study of the development of dialectical thinking.Human Development,23(6),400-421.
Basseches,M.(1984).Dialectical thinking and adult development.New Jersey,NY:Ablex.
Brienza,B.,Kung,F.Y.H.,Santos,H.C.,Bobocel,D.,&Grossmann,I.(2017).Wisdom and bias:Towards state-focused measurement of wisdom-related cognition.Retrieved from osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/p25c2
Dietze,P.,&Knowles,E.D.(2016).Social class and the motivational relevance of other human beings.Psychological Science,27(11),1517-1527.
Grimm,S.R.(2015).Wisdom.Australasian Journal of Philosophy,93(1),139-154.
Grossmann,I.(2012).Wise reasoning:Technical manual.Waterloo,ON:University of Waterloo.
Grossmann,I.(2017a).Wisdom in context.Perspectives on Psychological Science,12(2),233-257.
Grossmann,I.(2017b).Wisdom and how to cultivate it:Review of emerging evidence for a constructivist model of wise thinking.European Psychologist,22(4),233-246.
Grossmann,I.,Brienza,J.P.,&Bobocel,D.R.(2017).Wise deliberation sustains cooperation.Nature Human Behavior,1,0061.
Grossmann,I.,Gerlach,T.M.,&Denissen,J.J.A.(2016).Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges.Social Psychological and Personality Science,7,611-622.
Grossmann,I.,Karasawa,M.,Izumi,S.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2012).Aging and wisdom:Culture matters.Psychological Science,23(10),1059-1066.
Grossmann,I.,&Kross,E.(2014).Exploring Solomon’s paradox:Selfdistancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.Psychological Science,25(8),1571-1580.
Grossmann,I.,&Kung,F.Y.H.(in press).Wisdom and culture.In S.Kitayama&D.Cohen(Eds.),Handbook of cultural psychology.New York,NY:Guilford Press.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.K.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2013).A route to well-being:Intelligence versus wise reasoning.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,142(3),944-953.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.K.,Varnum,M.E.W.,Park,D.C.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2010).Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,107(16),7246-7250.
Grossmann,I.,&Varnum,M.E.W.(2015).Social class,culture,and cognition.Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(3),81-89.
Hayes,B.K.,Heit,E.,&Swendsen,H.(2010).Inductive reasoning.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews:Cognitive Science,1(2),278-292.
Hu,C.S.,Ferrari,M.,Wang,Q.D.,&Woodruff,E.(2017).Thin-slice measurement of wisdom.Frontiers in Psychology,8,1378.
Huynh,A.C.,Oakes,H.,Shay,G.R.,&McGregor,I.(2017).The wisdom in virtue:Pursuit of virtue predicts wise reasoning about personal conflicts.Psychological Science,28(12),1848-1856.
Huynh,A.C.,Yang,D.Y.J.,&Grossmann,I.(2016).The value of prospective reasoning for close relationships.Social Psychological and Personality Science,7(8),893-902.
Inhelder,B.,&Piaget,J.(1958).The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence.New York,NY:Basic Books.
Kahneman,D.,Krueger,A.B.,Schkade,D.A.,Schwarz,N.,&Stone,A.A.(2004).A survey method for characterizing daily life experience:The day reconstruction method.Science,306(5702),1776-1780.
Kramer,D.A.(1983).Post-formal operations?A need for further conceptualization.Human Development,26(2),91-105.
Kross,E.,&Grossmann,I.(2012).Boosting wisdom:Distance from the selfenhances wise reasoning,attitudes,and behavior.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,141(1),43-48.
Kunzmann,U.,&Baltes,P.B.(2005).The psychology of wisdom:Theoretical and empirical challenges.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.110-135).New York,NY:Cambridge University Press.
Kunzmann,U.,Nowak,J.,Thomas,S.,&Nestler,S.(in press).Value relativism and perspective taking are two distinct facets of wisdom-related knowledge.The Journals of Gerontology:Series B.
Li,H.Q.,&Wang,F.Y.(2017).Real-time measurement of wise personality cognition:Evidence from mouse tracking.Current Psychology,1-15.
Mickler,C.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2008).Personal wisdom:Validation and agerelated differences of a performance measure.Psychology and Aging,23(4),787-799.
Nisbett,R.E.,Peng,K.P.,Choi,I.,&Norenzayan,A.(2001).Culture and systems of thought:Holistic versus analytic cognition.Psychological Review,108(2),291-310.
Piaget,J.(1974).Experiments in contradiction.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Riegel,K.F.(1973).Dialectic operations:The final period of cognitive development.Human Development,16(5),346-370.
Sanders,J.D.,&Jeste,D.V.(2013).Neurobiological basis of personal wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.99-112).Dordrecht:Springer.
Staudinger,U.M.,&Glück,J.(2011).Psychological wisdom research:Commonalities and differences in a growing field.Annual Review of Psychology,62(1),215-241.
Staudinger,U.M.,Lopez,D.,&Baltes,P.B.(1997).The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance:Intelligence,personality,and more?Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,23(11),1200-1214.
Stephens,N.M.,Markus,H.R.,&Phillips,L.T.(2014).Social class culture cycles:How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality.Annual Review of Psychology,65(1),611-634.
Sternberg,R.J.(1998).A balance theory of wisdom.Review of General Psychology,2(4),347-365.
Sternberg,R.J.(2004a).Words to the wise about wisdom?A commentary on Ardelt’s critique of Baltes.Human Development,47(5),286-289.
Sternberg,R.J.(2004b).Why smart people can be so foolish.European Psychologist,9(3),145-150.
Varnum,M.E.W.,Blais,C.,Hampton,R.S.,&Brewer,G.A.(2015).Social class affects neural empathic responses.Culture and Brain,3(2),122-130.
Vervaeke,J.,&Ferraro,L.(2013).Relevance,meaning and the cognitive science of wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.21-51).Dordrecht:Springer.
Wang,F.,Peng,K.P.,Bai,Y.,Li,R.,Zhu,Y.,Sun,P.,et al.(2016).The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex modulates dialectical self-thinking.Frontiers in Psychology,7,152.