老者智否?成人智慧与年龄的关系
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摘要
智慧与年龄的关系是智慧心理学领域的重要议题。青少年时期及成年早期是智慧的萌发期为多数学者所公认,但在成年期个体的智慧与年龄关系的问题上,学界尚存在较大的理论分歧,主要有增长论、衰减论、稳定论、高原论四大观点,前两者的实证支持较少,后两者则有着较丰富的实证依据。在对上述理论进行回顾与反思的基础上,认为实证层面有三项任务最为紧迫、理论层面有六大问题值得探讨,并提出了基于"个体-情境"差异的"智慧-年龄"关系理论,试图为智慧与年龄的关系问题提供一个更深入的理解。
The relationship between wisdom and age is a crucial issue in wisdom psychology. The majority of scholars believe that wisdom is gained during adolescence and early adulthood. However, the relationship between adult's wisdom and age remains controversial. There are four generalized views:(1) positive theory;(2) decline model;(3) stable model;(4) plateau model. The former two have been less empirically supported than the latter two. Through the review and reflection of these viewpoints, the present article proposes that there are three most urgent tasks in the empirical aspect and six questions in the theoretical aspect. In addition, we offer a wisdom-age relation theory based on individual-situational differences, which may provide us with a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between wisdom and age.
The relationship between wisdom and age is a crucial issue in wisdom psychology. The majority of scholars believe that wisdom is gained during adolescence and early adulthood. However, the relationship between adult's wisdom and age remains controversial. There are four generalized views:(1) positive theory;(2) decline model;(3) stable model;(4) plateau model. The former two have been less empirically supported than the latter two. Through the review and reflection of these viewpoints, the present article proposes that there are three most urgent tasks in the empirical aspect and six questions in the theoretical aspect. In addition, we offer a wisdom-age relation theory based on individual-situational differences, which may provide us with a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between wisdom and age.
引文
陈浩彬,汪凤炎.(2013).智慧:结构、类型、测量及与相关变量的关系.心理科学进展,21,108-117.
陈浩彬,汪凤炎.(2016).人慧与物慧:基于智慧描述词与提名智慧者的分类.心理学探新,36(3),203-210.
冯友兰.(2014).贞元六书(全二册).上海:中华书局.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2014).智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究.上海:上海教育出版社.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2015).品德与才智一体:智慧的本质与范畴.南京社会科学,(3),127-133.
杨伯峻.(2009).论语译注(第3版).北京:中华书局.
杨世英.(2008).智慧的意涵与历程.本土心理學研究(中国台湾),(29),185-238.
张仁和,林以正,黄金兰.(2014).西方智慧研究新动态与中庸思维的关系.中国社会心理学评论,(8),212-225.
Achenbaum,W.A.,&Orwoll,L.(1991).Becoming wise:Apsycho-gerontological interpretation of the book of job.The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,32,21-39.
Ardelt,M.(2003).Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale.Research on Aging,25(3),275-324.
Ardelt,M.(2010).Are older adults wiser than college students?A comparison of two age cohorts.Journal of Adult Development,17(4),193-207.
Ardelt,M.,&Oh,H.(2016).Correlates of wisdom.In S.K.Whitbourne(Ed.),The encyclopedia of adulthood and aging.Oxford,UK:John Wiley and Sons.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(1993).The search for a psychology of wisdom.Current Directions in Psychological Science,2(3),75-80.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2000).Wisdom:Ametaheuristic(pragmatic)to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence.American Psychologist,55(1),122-136.
Baltes,P.B.,Staudinger,U.M.,Maercker,A.,&Smith,J.(1995).People nominated as wise:A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge.Psychology and Aging,10,155-166.
Bergsma,A.,&Ardelt,M.(2012).Self-reported wisdom and happiness:An empirical investigation.Journal of Happiness Studies,13,481-499.
Blanchard-Fields,F.(2007).Everyday problem solving and emotion:An adult developmental perspective.Current Directions in Psychological Science,16,26-31.
Brugman,G.M.(2006).Wisdom and aging.In J.E.Birren,K.W.Schaie,R.P.Abeles,M.Gatz,&T.A.Salthouse(Eds.),Handbook of the psychology of aging(6th ed.,pp.445-476).San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Cheraghi,F.,Kadivar,P.,Ardelt,M.,Asgari,A.,&Farzad,V.(2015).Gender as a moderator of the relation between age cohort and three-dimensional wisdom in Iranian culture.The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,81,3-26.
Dennis,N.A.,&Cabeza,R.(2008).Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging.In T.A.Salthouse&F.E.M.Craik(Eds.),Handbook of aging and cognition(3rd ed.,pp.1-54).New York:Psychology Press.
Erikson,E.H.(1963).Childhood and society(2nd ed.).New York:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.
Glück,J.,&Bluck,S.(2013).The MORE life experience model:A theory of the development of personal wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.75-97).New York,NY:Springer.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E W.Park,D.C.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2010).Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,107,7246-7250.
Grossmann,I.,Karasawa,M.,Izumi,S.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2012).Aging and wisdom:Culture matters.Psychological Science,23(10),1059-1066.
Jeste,D.V.,&Oswald,A.J.(2014).Individual and societal wisdom:Explaining the paradox of human aging and high well-being.Psychiatry:Interpersonal and Biological Processes,77(4),317-330.
Jordan,J.(2005).The quest for wisdom in adulthood:Apsychological perspective.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.160-188).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Karelitz,T.M.,Jarvin,L.,&Sternberg,R.J.(2010).The meaning of wisdom and its development throughout life.In W.F.Overton(Ed.),The handbook of life-span development:Cognition,biology,and methods(pp.837-881).Hoboken,NJ:John Wiley&Sons.
Kaup,A.R.,Mirzakhanian,H.,Jeste,D.V.,&Eyler,L.T.(2011).A review of the brain structure correlates of successful cognitive aging.The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,23,6-15.
Labouvie-Vief,G.(1990).Wisdom as integrated thought:Historical and developmental perspectives.In R.J.Sternberg(Ed.)Wisdom:Its nature,origins,and development(pp.52-83).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Meacham,J.A.(1990).The loss of wisdom.In R.J.Sternberg(Ed.),Wisdom:Its nature,origins,and development(pp.181-211).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Pasupathi,M.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2001).Do advanced moral reasoners also show wisdom?Linking moral reasoning and wisdom-related knowledge and judgement.International Journal of Behavioral Development,25(5),401-415.
Read,A.E.,&Carstensen,L.L.(2012).The theory behind the age-related positivity effect.Frontiers in Psychology,3,339.
Richardson,M.J.,&Pasupathi,M.(2005).Young and growing wiser:Wisdom during adolescence and young adulthood.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.139-159).New York:Cambridge University Press.
R?cke,C.,Li,S.C.,&Smith,J.(2009).Intraindividual variability in positive and negative affect over 45 days:Do older adults fluctuate less than young adults?Psychology and Aging,24,863-878.
Sinnott,J.D.(1998).The development of logic in adulthood:Postformal thought and its applications.New York:Springer Science&Business Media.
Smith,J.,&Baltes,P.B.(1990).Wisdom-related knowledge:Age/cohort differences in response to life-planning problems.Developmental Psychology,26(3),494-505.
Smith,J.,Staudinger,U.M.,&Baltes,P.B.(1994).Occupational settings facilitating wisdom-related knowledge:The sample case of clinical psychologists.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,64,989-999.
St.Jacques,P.L.,Bessette-Symons,B.,&Cabeza,R.(2009).Functional neuroimaging studies of aging and emotion:Fronto-amygdalar differences during emotional perception and episodic memory.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,15(6),819-825.
Staudinger,U.M.(1999).Older and wiser?Integrating results on the relationship between age and wisdom-related performance.International Journal of Behavioral Development,23(3),641-664.
Staudinger,U.M.,Smith,J.,&Baltes,P.B.(1992).Wisdomrelated knowledge in a life review task:Age differences and the role of professional specialization.Psychology and Aging,7(2),271-281.
Sternberg,R.J.(2005).Older but not wiser?The relationship between age and wisdom.Ageing International,30(1),5-26.
Taylor,M.,Bates,G.,&Webster,J.D.(2011).Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom:Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the self-assessed wisdom scale(SAWS)and the threedimensional wisdom scale(3D-WS).Experimental Aging Research,37,129-141.
Thomas,M.L.,Bangen,K.J.,Ardelt,M.,&Jeste,D.V.(2017).Development of a 12-Item abbreviated three-dimensional wisdom scale(3D-WS-12):Item selection and psychometric properties.Assessment,24,71-82.
Webster,J.D.(2003).An exploratory analysis of a self-assessed wisdom scale.Journal of Adult Development,10,13-22.
Webster,J.D.(2007).Measuring the character strength of wisdom.International Journal of Aging&Human Development,65,163-183.
Webster,J.D.,Westerhof,G.J.,&Bohlmeijer,E.T.(2014).Wisdom and mental health across the lifespan.The Journals of Gerontology Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,69,209-218.
Weststrate,N.M.,Ferrari,M.,&Ardelt,M.(2016).The many faces of wisdom:An investigation of cultural-historical wisdom exemplars reveals practical,philosophical,and benevolent prototypes.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,42(5),662-676.
Weststrate,N.M.,&Glück,J.(2017).Hard-earned wisdom:Exploratory processing of difficult life experience is positively associated with wisdom.Developmental Psychology,53(4),800-814.
Wink,P.,&Dillon,M.(2002).Spiritual development across the adult life course:Findings from a longitudinal study.Journal of Adult Development,9,79-94.
Wink,P.,&Helson,R.(1997).Practical and transcendent wisdom:Their nature and some longitudinal findings.Journal of Adult Development,4(1),1-15.
Worthy,D.A.,Gorlick,M.A.,Pacheco,J.L.,Schnyer,D.M.,&Maddox,W.T.(2011).With age comes wisdom:Decision making in younger and older adults.Psychological Science,22,1375-1380.
Yang,S.Y.(2014).Wisdom and learning from important and meaningful life experiences.Journal of Adult Development,21(3),129-146.
1“德才一体”较“德才兼备”更为明确,是汪凤炎2014年6月以来对其智慧理论的新概括。“兼备”一词仅指涉“德”“才”两种成分兼有,未必能保证二者“合一”;相比之下,“德才一体”更能体现智慧的本质。
2 需指出,Sternberg概述的“流体智力”的观点、“晶体智力”的观点、“混合流体智力与晶体智力”的观点,并不是说“智慧就是流体智力/晶体智力/混合流体智力与晶体智力的某种能力”,而是意指智慧随年龄发展的轨迹(track)与之类似。
3 一些中国台湾学者(张仁和,林以正,黄金兰,2014)曾将Grossmann等(2010)的研究作为支持“老而智”(“年岁的增长也带动智慧的增长”)的直接证据,本文则在2.2小节将之归为支持“增长论”的间接证据,这是由于:Grossmann等(2010)测量的实际上是社会推理能力而非智慧本身。
陈浩彬,汪凤炎.(2016).人慧与物慧:基于智慧描述词与提名智慧者的分类.心理学探新,36(3),203-210.
冯友兰.(2014).贞元六书(全二册).上海:中华书局.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2014).智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究.上海:上海教育出版社.
汪凤炎,郑红.(2015).品德与才智一体:智慧的本质与范畴.南京社会科学,(3),127-133.
杨伯峻.(2009).论语译注(第3版).北京:中华书局.
杨世英.(2008).智慧的意涵与历程.本土心理學研究(中国台湾),(29),185-238.
张仁和,林以正,黄金兰.(2014).西方智慧研究新动态与中庸思维的关系.中国社会心理学评论,(8),212-225.
Achenbaum,W.A.,&Orwoll,L.(1991).Becoming wise:Apsycho-gerontological interpretation of the book of job.The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,32,21-39.
Ardelt,M.(2003).Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale.Research on Aging,25(3),275-324.
Ardelt,M.(2010).Are older adults wiser than college students?A comparison of two age cohorts.Journal of Adult Development,17(4),193-207.
Ardelt,M.,&Oh,H.(2016).Correlates of wisdom.In S.K.Whitbourne(Ed.),The encyclopedia of adulthood and aging.Oxford,UK:John Wiley and Sons.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(1993).The search for a psychology of wisdom.Current Directions in Psychological Science,2(3),75-80.
Baltes,P.B.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2000).Wisdom:Ametaheuristic(pragmatic)to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence.American Psychologist,55(1),122-136.
Baltes,P.B.,Staudinger,U.M.,Maercker,A.,&Smith,J.(1995).People nominated as wise:A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge.Psychology and Aging,10,155-166.
Bergsma,A.,&Ardelt,M.(2012).Self-reported wisdom and happiness:An empirical investigation.Journal of Happiness Studies,13,481-499.
Blanchard-Fields,F.(2007).Everyday problem solving and emotion:An adult developmental perspective.Current Directions in Psychological Science,16,26-31.
Brugman,G.M.(2006).Wisdom and aging.In J.E.Birren,K.W.Schaie,R.P.Abeles,M.Gatz,&T.A.Salthouse(Eds.),Handbook of the psychology of aging(6th ed.,pp.445-476).San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Cheraghi,F.,Kadivar,P.,Ardelt,M.,Asgari,A.,&Farzad,V.(2015).Gender as a moderator of the relation between age cohort and three-dimensional wisdom in Iranian culture.The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,81,3-26.
Dennis,N.A.,&Cabeza,R.(2008).Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging.In T.A.Salthouse&F.E.M.Craik(Eds.),Handbook of aging and cognition(3rd ed.,pp.1-54).New York:Psychology Press.
Erikson,E.H.(1963).Childhood and society(2nd ed.).New York:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.
Glück,J.,&Bluck,S.(2013).The MORE life experience model:A theory of the development of personal wisdom.In M.Ferrari&N.M.Weststrate(Eds.),The scientific study of personal wisdom(pp.75-97).New York,NY:Springer.
Grossmann,I.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E W.Park,D.C.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2010).Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,107,7246-7250.
Grossmann,I.,Karasawa,M.,Izumi,S.,Na,J.,Varnum,M.E.,Kitayama,S.,&Nisbett,R.E.(2012).Aging and wisdom:Culture matters.Psychological Science,23(10),1059-1066.
Jeste,D.V.,&Oswald,A.J.(2014).Individual and societal wisdom:Explaining the paradox of human aging and high well-being.Psychiatry:Interpersonal and Biological Processes,77(4),317-330.
Jordan,J.(2005).The quest for wisdom in adulthood:Apsychological perspective.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.160-188).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Karelitz,T.M.,Jarvin,L.,&Sternberg,R.J.(2010).The meaning of wisdom and its development throughout life.In W.F.Overton(Ed.),The handbook of life-span development:Cognition,biology,and methods(pp.837-881).Hoboken,NJ:John Wiley&Sons.
Kaup,A.R.,Mirzakhanian,H.,Jeste,D.V.,&Eyler,L.T.(2011).A review of the brain structure correlates of successful cognitive aging.The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,23,6-15.
Labouvie-Vief,G.(1990).Wisdom as integrated thought:Historical and developmental perspectives.In R.J.Sternberg(Ed.)Wisdom:Its nature,origins,and development(pp.52-83).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Meacham,J.A.(1990).The loss of wisdom.In R.J.Sternberg(Ed.),Wisdom:Its nature,origins,and development(pp.181-211).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Pasupathi,M.,&Staudinger,U.M.(2001).Do advanced moral reasoners also show wisdom?Linking moral reasoning and wisdom-related knowledge and judgement.International Journal of Behavioral Development,25(5),401-415.
Read,A.E.,&Carstensen,L.L.(2012).The theory behind the age-related positivity effect.Frontiers in Psychology,3,339.
Richardson,M.J.,&Pasupathi,M.(2005).Young and growing wiser:Wisdom during adolescence and young adulthood.In R.J.Sternberg&J.Jordan(Eds.),A handbook of wisdom:Psychological perspectives(pp.139-159).New York:Cambridge University Press.
R?cke,C.,Li,S.C.,&Smith,J.(2009).Intraindividual variability in positive and negative affect over 45 days:Do older adults fluctuate less than young adults?Psychology and Aging,24,863-878.
Sinnott,J.D.(1998).The development of logic in adulthood:Postformal thought and its applications.New York:Springer Science&Business Media.
Smith,J.,&Baltes,P.B.(1990).Wisdom-related knowledge:Age/cohort differences in response to life-planning problems.Developmental Psychology,26(3),494-505.
Smith,J.,Staudinger,U.M.,&Baltes,P.B.(1994).Occupational settings facilitating wisdom-related knowledge:The sample case of clinical psychologists.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,64,989-999.
St.Jacques,P.L.,Bessette-Symons,B.,&Cabeza,R.(2009).Functional neuroimaging studies of aging and emotion:Fronto-amygdalar differences during emotional perception and episodic memory.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,15(6),819-825.
Staudinger,U.M.(1999).Older and wiser?Integrating results on the relationship between age and wisdom-related performance.International Journal of Behavioral Development,23(3),641-664.
Staudinger,U.M.,Smith,J.,&Baltes,P.B.(1992).Wisdomrelated knowledge in a life review task:Age differences and the role of professional specialization.Psychology and Aging,7(2),271-281.
Sternberg,R.J.(2005).Older but not wiser?The relationship between age and wisdom.Ageing International,30(1),5-26.
Taylor,M.,Bates,G.,&Webster,J.D.(2011).Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom:Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the self-assessed wisdom scale(SAWS)and the threedimensional wisdom scale(3D-WS).Experimental Aging Research,37,129-141.
Thomas,M.L.,Bangen,K.J.,Ardelt,M.,&Jeste,D.V.(2017).Development of a 12-Item abbreviated three-dimensional wisdom scale(3D-WS-12):Item selection and psychometric properties.Assessment,24,71-82.
Webster,J.D.(2003).An exploratory analysis of a self-assessed wisdom scale.Journal of Adult Development,10,13-22.
Webster,J.D.(2007).Measuring the character strength of wisdom.International Journal of Aging&Human Development,65,163-183.
Webster,J.D.,Westerhof,G.J.,&Bohlmeijer,E.T.(2014).Wisdom and mental health across the lifespan.The Journals of Gerontology Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,69,209-218.
Weststrate,N.M.,Ferrari,M.,&Ardelt,M.(2016).The many faces of wisdom:An investigation of cultural-historical wisdom exemplars reveals practical,philosophical,and benevolent prototypes.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,42(5),662-676.
Weststrate,N.M.,&Glück,J.(2017).Hard-earned wisdom:Exploratory processing of difficult life experience is positively associated with wisdom.Developmental Psychology,53(4),800-814.
Wink,P.,&Dillon,M.(2002).Spiritual development across the adult life course:Findings from a longitudinal study.Journal of Adult Development,9,79-94.
Wink,P.,&Helson,R.(1997).Practical and transcendent wisdom:Their nature and some longitudinal findings.Journal of Adult Development,4(1),1-15.
Worthy,D.A.,Gorlick,M.A.,Pacheco,J.L.,Schnyer,D.M.,&Maddox,W.T.(2011).With age comes wisdom:Decision making in younger and older adults.Psychological Science,22,1375-1380.
Yang,S.Y.(2014).Wisdom and learning from important and meaningful life experiences.Journal of Adult Development,21(3),129-146.
1“德才一体”较“德才兼备”更为明确,是汪凤炎2014年6月以来对其智慧理论的新概括。“兼备”一词仅指涉“德”“才”两种成分兼有,未必能保证二者“合一”;相比之下,“德才一体”更能体现智慧的本质。
2 需指出,Sternberg概述的“流体智力”的观点、“晶体智力”的观点、“混合流体智力与晶体智力”的观点,并不是说“智慧就是流体智力/晶体智力/混合流体智力与晶体智力的某种能力”,而是意指智慧随年龄发展的轨迹(track)与之类似。
3 一些中国台湾学者(张仁和,林以正,黄金兰,2014)曾将Grossmann等(2010)的研究作为支持“老而智”(“年岁的增长也带动智慧的增长”)的直接证据,本文则在2.2小节将之归为支持“增长论”的间接证据,这是由于:Grossmann等(2010)测量的实际上是社会推理能力而非智慧本身。