Modelling Chorabari Lake outburst flood, Kedarnath, India
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摘要
In this study, the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) that occurred over Kedarnath in June 2013 was modeled using integrated observations from the field and Remote Sensing(RS). The lake breach parameters such as area, depth, breach, and height have been estimated from the field observations and Remote Sensing(RS) data. A number of modelling approaches, including Snow Melt Runoff Model(SRM), Modified Single Flow model(MSF), Watershed Management System(WMS), Simplified Dam Breach Model(SMPDBK) and BREACH were used to model the GLOF. Estimations from SRM produced a runoff of about 22.7 m3 during 16–17, June 2013 over Chorabari Lake. Bathymetry data reported that the lake got filled to its maximum capacity(3822.7 m3) due to excess discharge. Hydrograph obtained from the BREACH model revealed a peak discharge of about 1699 m3/s during an intense water flow episode that lasted for 10–15 minutes on 17 th June 2013. Excess discharge from heavy rainfall and snowmelt into the lake increased its hydrostatic pressure and the lake breached cataclysmically.
In this study, the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) that occurred over Kedarnath in June 2013 was modeled using integrated observations from the field and Remote Sensing(RS). The lake breach parameters such as area, depth, breach, and height have been estimated from the field observations and Remote Sensing(RS) data. A number of modelling approaches, including Snow Melt Runoff Model(SRM), Modified Single Flow model(MSF), Watershed Management System(WMS), Simplified Dam Breach Model(SMPDBK) and BREACH were used to model the GLOF. Estimations from SRM produced a runoff of about 22.7 m3 during 16–17, June 2013 over Chorabari Lake. Bathymetry data reported that the lake got filled to its maximum capacity(3822.7 m3) due to excess discharge. Hydrograph obtained from the BREACH model revealed a peak discharge of about 1699 m3/s during an intense water flow episode that lasted for 10–15 minutes on 17 th June 2013. Excess discharge from heavy rainfall and snowmelt into the lake increased its hydrostatic pressure and the lake breached cataclysmically.
In this study, the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) that occurred over Kedarnath in June 2013 was modeled using integrated observations from the field and Remote Sensing(RS). The lake breach parameters such as area, depth, breach, and height have been estimated from the field observations and Remote Sensing(RS) data. A number of modelling approaches, including Snow Melt Runoff Model(SRM), Modified Single Flow model(MSF), Watershed Management System(WMS), Simplified Dam Breach Model(SMPDBK) and BREACH were used to model the GLOF. Estimations from SRM produced a runoff of about 22.7 m3 during 16–17, June 2013 over Chorabari Lake. Bathymetry data reported that the lake got filled to its maximum capacity(3822.7 m3) due to excess discharge. Hydrograph obtained from the BREACH model revealed a peak discharge of about 1699 m3/s during an intense water flow episode that lasted for 10–15 minutes on 17 th June 2013. Excess discharge from heavy rainfall and snowmelt into the lake increased its hydrostatic pressure and the lake breached cataclysmically.
引文
Allen SK,Rastner P,Arora M,et al.(2016)Lake outburst and debris flow disaster at Kedarnath,June 2013:hydrometeorological triggering and topographic predisposition.Landslides 13(6):1479-1491.
Asthana A K,Asthana H(2014)Geomorphic Control of cloud burusts and flash floods in Himalaya with special reference to Kedarnath area of Uttrakhand,India.International Journal of Advancement in Earth and Environmental Sciences 2(1):16-24.
Bajracharya S R,Mool P K,Shrestha B R(2007)Impact of climate change on Himalayan glaciers and glacial lakes:Case studies on GLOF and associated hazards in Nepal and Bhutan.International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Bolch T,Kulkarni A,K??b A,et al(2012)The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers.Science 336(6079):310-314.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215828
Bonham-Carter GF(2014)Geographic information systems for geoscientists:modelling with GIS.Pergamon,Ottawa.
Carey M(2005)Living and dying with glaciers:people's historical vulnerability to avalanches and outburst floods in Peru.Global and Planetary Change 47(2):122-134.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2004.10.007
Clague JJ,Evans SG(2000)A review of catastrophic drainage of moraine-dammed lakes in British Columbia.Quaternary Science Reviews 19(17):1763-1783.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00090-1
Clarke G K(1982)Glacier outburst floods from Hazard Lake,Yukon Territory,and the problem of flood magnitude prediction.Journal of Glaciology 28:3-21.https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000011746
Costa JE,Schuster RL(1988)The formation and failure of natural dams.Geological Society of America Bulletin 100(7):1054-1068.https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1054:TFAFON>2.3.CO;2
Das S,Kar NS,Bandyopadhyay S(2015)Glacial lake outburst flood at Kedarnath,Indian Himalaya:a study using digital elevation models and satellite images.Natural Hazards 77(2):769-786.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1629-6
Dobhal DP,Gupta AK,Mehta M et al.(2013)Kedarnath disaster:facts and plausible causes.Current Science 105(2):171-174.
Emmer A(2018)GLOFs in the WOS:bibliometrics,geographies and global trends of research on glacial lake outburst floods(Web of Science,1979-2016).Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18(3):813-827.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-813-2018
Fread DL(1988)BREACH,an erosion model for earthen dam failures.Hydrologic Research Laboratory,National Weather Service,NOAA,Silver Spring,Maryland.http://www.rivermechanics.net/models/breach.pdf(Accessed 6 October 2018)
Huggel C,Haeberli W,K??b A et al.(2004)An assessment procedure for glacial hazards in the Swiss Alps.Canadian Geotechnical Journal 41:1068-1083.https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-053
Huggel C,K??b A,Haeberli W et al.(2003)Regional-scale GIS-models for assessment of hazards from glacier lake outbursts:evaluation and application in the Swiss Alps.Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 3(6):647-662.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-3-647-2003
Jenson SK,Domingue JO(1988)Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis.Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 54(11):1593-1600.
Korup O,Tweed F(2007)Ice,moraine,and landslide dams in mountainous terrain.Quaternary Science Reviews 26:3406-3422.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.10.012
Kulkarni AV,Bahuguna IM,Rathore BP et al.(2007)Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data.Current Science 1:69-74.
Lamsal D,Sawagaki T,Watanabe T et al.(2016a)An assessment of conditions before and after the 1998 Tam Pokhari outburst in the Nepal Himalaya and an evaluation of the future outburst hazard.Hydrological Processes 30(5):676-691.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10636
Lamsal D,Sawagaki T,Watanabe T,et al.(2016b)Assessment of glacial lake development and prospects of outburst susceptibility:Chamlang South Glacier,eastern Nepal Himalaya.Geomatics,Natural Hazards and Risk 7(1):403-423.
Livne E,Tal Svoray(2011)Components of uncertainty in primary production model:the study of DEM,classification and location error.International Journal of Geographical Information Science 25(3):473-488.
Malone ETE(2010)Changing glaciers and hydrology in Asia.Addressing vulnerability to glacier ice melt impacts.Washington,DC:USAID.Available online at:http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia/documents/Asia_Glaci er_Melt_Vulnerability_Nov-2010.pdf(Accesses on 7 April2017)
Marks D,Dozier J,Frew J(1984)Automated basin delineation from digital elevation data.Geo-Processing 2(3):299-311.
Martz LW,Garbrecht J(1992)Numerical definition of drainage network and subcatchment areas from digital elevation models.Computers&Geosciences 18(6):747-761.https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(92)90007-E
Martinec J(1975)Snowmelt-runoff model for stream flow forecasts.Hydrology Research 6(3):145-154.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.1975.0010
Martinec J,Rango A,Major E(1983)The snowmelt-runoff model(SRM)user’s manual.https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19830015389.pdf(Accessed on 12 October 2018)
Mergili M,Emmer A,Ju?icováA et al.(2018)How well can we simulate complex hydro‐geomorphic process chains?The2012 multi‐lake outburst flood in the Santa Cruz Valley(Cordillera Blanca,Perú).Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43(7):1373-1389.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4318
Mergili M,Schneider D,Worni R et al.(2011)Glacial lake outburst floods in the Pamir of Tajikistan:challenges in prediction and modelling.In 5th International Conference on Debris-flow Hazards Mitigation:Mechanics,Prediction and Assessment,University of Padova,Italy,pp 14-17.
Massey CI,Manville V,Hancox GH et al.(2010)Out-burst flood(lahar)triggered by retrogressive landsliding,18 March 2007at Mt Ruapehu,New Zealand-a successful early warning.Landslides 7(3):303-315.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-009-0180-5
Meon G,Schwarz W(1993)Estimation of glacier lake outburst flood and its impact on a hydro project in Nepal.IAHSPublications-Publications of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences 218:331-340.
Mir RA,Jain SK,Lohani AK et al.(2018)Glacier recession and glacial lake outburst flood studies in Zanskar basin,western Himalaya.Journal of Hydrology 564:376-396.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.05.031.
Mishra A,Srinivasan J(2013)Did a cloud burst occur in Kedarnath during 16 and 17 June 2013?Current Science105(10):1351-1352.
Mishra A,Liu SC(2014)Changes in precipitation pattern and risk of drought over India in the context of global warming.Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres 119(13):7833-7841.https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021471
Mishra AK,Rafiq M(2017)Analyzing snowfall variability over two locations in Kashmir,India in the context of warming climate.Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans 79:1-9.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2017.05.002
Mool PK,Wangda D,Bajracharya SR et al.(2001)Inventory of glaciers,glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods.Monitoring and early warning systems in the Hindu KushHimalayan Region:Bhutan.International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development,Kathmandu,Nepal.
Najafi A(2003)Investigation of the snowmelt runoff in the Orumiyeh region,using modeling,GIS and RS techniques.Doctoral dissertation MS Thesis,ITC Netherlands.
O'Callaghan JF,Mark DM(1984)The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data.Computer vision,graphics,and image processing 28(3):323-344.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(84)80011-0
Osti R,Egashira S(2009)Hydrodynamic characteristics of the Tam Pokhari Glacial Lake outburst flood in the Mt.Everest region,Nepal.Hydrological Processes 23(20):2943-2955.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7405
Rafiq M,Mishra A(2016)Investigating changes in Himalayan glacier in warming environment:a case study of Kolahoi glacier.Environmental Earth Sciences 75(23):1469.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6282-1
Rafiq M,Mishra A(2018)A study of heavy snowfall in Kashmir,India in January 2017.Weather 73(1):15-17.https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.3065
Rafiq M,Meer MS,Mishra A(2018)On land use and land cover changes over Lidder valley in changing environment.Annals of GIS,https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2018.1520300
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2012)Estimation and validation of Remotely Sensed Land Surface Temperature in Kashmir Valley.Journal of Himalayan Ecology&Sustainable Development 9:1-13.
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2014)The Importance of Temperature Lapse Rate for Snow Hydrology.National Conference on Himalayan Glaciology,At Shimla Himachal30-31 October 2014.Pradesh,India.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2901.7125.
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2016)Estimating Land Surface Temperature and its Lapse Rate over Kashmir Valley Using MODIS Data.In Geostatistical and Geospatial Approaches for the Characterization of Natural Resources in the Environment,723-728.New York,NY:Springer International Publishing.
Rao KHV,Rao,VV,Dadhwal VK et al.(2014)Kedarnath flash floods:a hydrological and hydraulic simulation study.Current Science 106(4):598.
Richardson SD,Reynolds JM(2000a)Degradation of ice-cored moraine dams:implications for hazard development.IAHSPUBLICATION,Washington USA,pp 187-198.
Richardson SD,Reynolds JM(2000b)An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas.Quaternary International 65:31-47.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(99)00035-X
Romshoo SA,Rafiq M,Rashid I(2018)Spatio-temporal variation of land surface temperature and temperature lapse rate over mountainous Kashmir Himalaya.Journal of Mountain Science 15(3):563-576.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x
Singh VP(1996)Dam Breach Modelling Technology,vol.17.Kluwer Academic Publishers.Dordrecht,Boston,London,pp242.
Tarboton DG,Bras RL,Rodriguez‐Iturbe I(1991)On the extraction of channel networks from digital elevation data.Hydrological Processes 5(1):81-100.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050107
Tingsanchali T,Chinnarasri C(2001)Numerical modelling of dam failure due to flow overtopping.Hydrological Sciences Journal 46(1):113-130.https://doi.org/10.1080/02626660109492804
Veh Georg,Oliver Korup,Sigrid Roessner et al.(2018)Detecting Himalayan glacial lake outburst floods from Landsat time series.Remote Sensing of Environment.207:84-97.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.12.025
Walder JS,Costa JE(1996)Outburst floods from glacierdammed lakes:the effect of mode of lake drainage on flood magnitude.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21(8):701-723.https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199608)21:8<701::AID-ESP615>3.0.CO;2-2
Walder JS,O’Connor JE(1997)Methods for predicting peak discharge of floods caused by failure of natural and constructed earthen dams.Water Resources Research 33(10):2337-2348.https://doi.org/10.1029/97WR01616
Wetmore JN,Fread DL(1981)The NWS simplified dam-break flood forecasting model.National Weather Service,Silver Spring,Maryland,pp 164-197.
Worni R,Stoffel M,Huggel C,et al.(2012)Analysis and dynamic modeling of a moraine failure and glacier lake outburst flood at Ventisquero Negro,Patagonian Andes(Argentina).Journal of Hydrology 444:134-145.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.04.013
Asthana A K,Asthana H(2014)Geomorphic Control of cloud burusts and flash floods in Himalaya with special reference to Kedarnath area of Uttrakhand,India.International Journal of Advancement in Earth and Environmental Sciences 2(1):16-24.
Bajracharya S R,Mool P K,Shrestha B R(2007)Impact of climate change on Himalayan glaciers and glacial lakes:Case studies on GLOF and associated hazards in Nepal and Bhutan.International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Bolch T,Kulkarni A,K??b A,et al(2012)The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers.Science 336(6079):310-314.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215828
Bonham-Carter GF(2014)Geographic information systems for geoscientists:modelling with GIS.Pergamon,Ottawa.
Carey M(2005)Living and dying with glaciers:people's historical vulnerability to avalanches and outburst floods in Peru.Global and Planetary Change 47(2):122-134.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2004.10.007
Clague JJ,Evans SG(2000)A review of catastrophic drainage of moraine-dammed lakes in British Columbia.Quaternary Science Reviews 19(17):1763-1783.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00090-1
Clarke G K(1982)Glacier outburst floods from Hazard Lake,Yukon Territory,and the problem of flood magnitude prediction.Journal of Glaciology 28:3-21.https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000011746
Costa JE,Schuster RL(1988)The formation and failure of natural dams.Geological Society of America Bulletin 100(7):1054-1068.https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1054:TFAFON>2.3.CO;2
Das S,Kar NS,Bandyopadhyay S(2015)Glacial lake outburst flood at Kedarnath,Indian Himalaya:a study using digital elevation models and satellite images.Natural Hazards 77(2):769-786.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1629-6
Dobhal DP,Gupta AK,Mehta M et al.(2013)Kedarnath disaster:facts and plausible causes.Current Science 105(2):171-174.
Emmer A(2018)GLOFs in the WOS:bibliometrics,geographies and global trends of research on glacial lake outburst floods(Web of Science,1979-2016).Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18(3):813-827.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-813-2018
Fread DL(1988)BREACH,an erosion model for earthen dam failures.Hydrologic Research Laboratory,National Weather Service,NOAA,Silver Spring,Maryland.http://www.rivermechanics.net/models/breach.pdf(Accessed 6 October 2018)
Huggel C,Haeberli W,K??b A et al.(2004)An assessment procedure for glacial hazards in the Swiss Alps.Canadian Geotechnical Journal 41:1068-1083.https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-053
Huggel C,K??b A,Haeberli W et al.(2003)Regional-scale GIS-models for assessment of hazards from glacier lake outbursts:evaluation and application in the Swiss Alps.Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 3(6):647-662.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-3-647-2003
Jenson SK,Domingue JO(1988)Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis.Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 54(11):1593-1600.
Korup O,Tweed F(2007)Ice,moraine,and landslide dams in mountainous terrain.Quaternary Science Reviews 26:3406-3422.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.10.012
Kulkarni AV,Bahuguna IM,Rathore BP et al.(2007)Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data.Current Science 1:69-74.
Lamsal D,Sawagaki T,Watanabe T et al.(2016a)An assessment of conditions before and after the 1998 Tam Pokhari outburst in the Nepal Himalaya and an evaluation of the future outburst hazard.Hydrological Processes 30(5):676-691.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10636
Lamsal D,Sawagaki T,Watanabe T,et al.(2016b)Assessment of glacial lake development and prospects of outburst susceptibility:Chamlang South Glacier,eastern Nepal Himalaya.Geomatics,Natural Hazards and Risk 7(1):403-423.
Livne E,Tal Svoray(2011)Components of uncertainty in primary production model:the study of DEM,classification and location error.International Journal of Geographical Information Science 25(3):473-488.
Malone ETE(2010)Changing glaciers and hydrology in Asia.Addressing vulnerability to glacier ice melt impacts.Washington,DC:USAID.Available online at:http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia/documents/Asia_Glaci er_Melt_Vulnerability_Nov-2010.pdf(Accesses on 7 April2017)
Marks D,Dozier J,Frew J(1984)Automated basin delineation from digital elevation data.Geo-Processing 2(3):299-311.
Martz LW,Garbrecht J(1992)Numerical definition of drainage network and subcatchment areas from digital elevation models.Computers&Geosciences 18(6):747-761.https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(92)90007-E
Martinec J(1975)Snowmelt-runoff model for stream flow forecasts.Hydrology Research 6(3):145-154.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.1975.0010
Martinec J,Rango A,Major E(1983)The snowmelt-runoff model(SRM)user’s manual.https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19830015389.pdf(Accessed on 12 October 2018)
Mergili M,Emmer A,Ju?icováA et al.(2018)How well can we simulate complex hydro‐geomorphic process chains?The2012 multi‐lake outburst flood in the Santa Cruz Valley(Cordillera Blanca,Perú).Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43(7):1373-1389.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4318
Mergili M,Schneider D,Worni R et al.(2011)Glacial lake outburst floods in the Pamir of Tajikistan:challenges in prediction and modelling.In 5th International Conference on Debris-flow Hazards Mitigation:Mechanics,Prediction and Assessment,University of Padova,Italy,pp 14-17.
Massey CI,Manville V,Hancox GH et al.(2010)Out-burst flood(lahar)triggered by retrogressive landsliding,18 March 2007at Mt Ruapehu,New Zealand-a successful early warning.Landslides 7(3):303-315.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-009-0180-5
Meon G,Schwarz W(1993)Estimation of glacier lake outburst flood and its impact on a hydro project in Nepal.IAHSPublications-Publications of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences 218:331-340.
Mir RA,Jain SK,Lohani AK et al.(2018)Glacier recession and glacial lake outburst flood studies in Zanskar basin,western Himalaya.Journal of Hydrology 564:376-396.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.05.031.
Mishra A,Srinivasan J(2013)Did a cloud burst occur in Kedarnath during 16 and 17 June 2013?Current Science105(10):1351-1352.
Mishra A,Liu SC(2014)Changes in precipitation pattern and risk of drought over India in the context of global warming.Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres 119(13):7833-7841.https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021471
Mishra AK,Rafiq M(2017)Analyzing snowfall variability over two locations in Kashmir,India in the context of warming climate.Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans 79:1-9.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2017.05.002
Mool PK,Wangda D,Bajracharya SR et al.(2001)Inventory of glaciers,glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods.Monitoring and early warning systems in the Hindu KushHimalayan Region:Bhutan.International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development,Kathmandu,Nepal.
Najafi A(2003)Investigation of the snowmelt runoff in the Orumiyeh region,using modeling,GIS and RS techniques.Doctoral dissertation MS Thesis,ITC Netherlands.
O'Callaghan JF,Mark DM(1984)The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data.Computer vision,graphics,and image processing 28(3):323-344.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(84)80011-0
Osti R,Egashira S(2009)Hydrodynamic characteristics of the Tam Pokhari Glacial Lake outburst flood in the Mt.Everest region,Nepal.Hydrological Processes 23(20):2943-2955.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7405
Rafiq M,Mishra A(2016)Investigating changes in Himalayan glacier in warming environment:a case study of Kolahoi glacier.Environmental Earth Sciences 75(23):1469.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6282-1
Rafiq M,Mishra A(2018)A study of heavy snowfall in Kashmir,India in January 2017.Weather 73(1):15-17.https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.3065
Rafiq M,Meer MS,Mishra A(2018)On land use and land cover changes over Lidder valley in changing environment.Annals of GIS,https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2018.1520300
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2012)Estimation and validation of Remotely Sensed Land Surface Temperature in Kashmir Valley.Journal of Himalayan Ecology&Sustainable Development 9:1-13.
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2014)The Importance of Temperature Lapse Rate for Snow Hydrology.National Conference on Himalayan Glaciology,At Shimla Himachal30-31 October 2014.Pradesh,India.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2901.7125.
Rafiq M,Rashid I,Romshoo SA(2016)Estimating Land Surface Temperature and its Lapse Rate over Kashmir Valley Using MODIS Data.In Geostatistical and Geospatial Approaches for the Characterization of Natural Resources in the Environment,723-728.New York,NY:Springer International Publishing.
Rao KHV,Rao,VV,Dadhwal VK et al.(2014)Kedarnath flash floods:a hydrological and hydraulic simulation study.Current Science 106(4):598.
Richardson SD,Reynolds JM(2000a)Degradation of ice-cored moraine dams:implications for hazard development.IAHSPUBLICATION,Washington USA,pp 187-198.
Richardson SD,Reynolds JM(2000b)An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas.Quaternary International 65:31-47.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(99)00035-X
Romshoo SA,Rafiq M,Rashid I(2018)Spatio-temporal variation of land surface temperature and temperature lapse rate over mountainous Kashmir Himalaya.Journal of Mountain Science 15(3):563-576.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x
Singh VP(1996)Dam Breach Modelling Technology,vol.17.Kluwer Academic Publishers.Dordrecht,Boston,London,pp242.
Tarboton DG,Bras RL,Rodriguez‐Iturbe I(1991)On the extraction of channel networks from digital elevation data.Hydrological Processes 5(1):81-100.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050107
Tingsanchali T,Chinnarasri C(2001)Numerical modelling of dam failure due to flow overtopping.Hydrological Sciences Journal 46(1):113-130.https://doi.org/10.1080/02626660109492804
Veh Georg,Oliver Korup,Sigrid Roessner et al.(2018)Detecting Himalayan glacial lake outburst floods from Landsat time series.Remote Sensing of Environment.207:84-97.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.12.025
Walder JS,Costa JE(1996)Outburst floods from glacierdammed lakes:the effect of mode of lake drainage on flood magnitude.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21(8):701-723.https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199608)21:8<701::AID-ESP615>3.0.CO;2-2
Walder JS,O’Connor JE(1997)Methods for predicting peak discharge of floods caused by failure of natural and constructed earthen dams.Water Resources Research 33(10):2337-2348.https://doi.org/10.1029/97WR01616
Wetmore JN,Fread DL(1981)The NWS simplified dam-break flood forecasting model.National Weather Service,Silver Spring,Maryland,pp 164-197.
Worni R,Stoffel M,Huggel C,et al.(2012)Analysis and dynamic modeling of a moraine failure and glacier lake outburst flood at Ventisquero Negro,Patagonian Andes(Argentina).Journal of Hydrology 444:134-145.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.04.013