缅甸“罗兴亚人问题”的重构与解构
|
摘要
2012年之后,由于跨国罗兴亚人网络的努力,缅甸的"罗兴亚人问题"从缅族、若开族、罗兴亚人三者之间两两矛盾的一个方面,转变成缅甸政府与世界范围内的跨国罗兴亚人网络、国际组织之间围绕罗兴亚人人权问题的较量,从一个国内问题转变成一个国际问题。面对国际社会的压力,缅甸政府逐渐意识到缅甸"罗兴亚人问题"的重要性,先后成立9个调查委员会,对"罗兴亚人问题"展开调查,企图正本清源,把它放回到既有的族群冲突框架之内、在现有的法律框架下寻找解决的办法。在"罗兴亚人问题"上,中国政府一方面奉行不干预内政原则,反对一些西方国家以人权为借口干预缅甸内政;另一方面积极斡旋,促成缅甸和孟加拉国就"罗兴亚人问题"展开谈判,帮助缅甸政府开发若开邦地区,为缅甸族群冲突的根本解决创造良好的条件,这些都有利于"罗兴亚人问题"的解决。
Since 2012,promoted by the radical transnational networks of Rohingya,Myanmar's Rohingya issue has transformed from one aspect of the contradiction among the Burmese,Rakhine and Rohingy,to the contest among the Myanmar government,the Rohingya network and international organizations around the world surrounding the human rights issue of Rohingya,which changed from a domestic issue into an international issue. Facing the pressure from the international community,Myanmar government established 9 commissions to investigate the issue and implemented a series policies to resolve the problem,attempting to find a solution under the existing framework of ethnic conflicts and legal framework. On the issue of Rohingya,Chinese government pursues the principle of non-intervention in internal affairs and opposes some western countries to intervene in Myanmar's internal affairs under the pretext of human rights. On the other hand,Chinese active mediation has led to negotiations between Myanmar and Bangladesh on the "Rohingya issue"to help the Myanmar government develop the Rakhine State region and create favorable conditions for the fundamental settlement of the ethnic conflict in Myanmar.
Since 2012,promoted by the radical transnational networks of Rohingya,Myanmar's Rohingya issue has transformed from one aspect of the contradiction among the Burmese,Rakhine and Rohingy,to the contest among the Myanmar government,the Rohingya network and international organizations around the world surrounding the human rights issue of Rohingya,which changed from a domestic issue into an international issue. Facing the pressure from the international community,Myanmar government established 9 commissions to investigate the issue and implemented a series policies to resolve the problem,attempting to find a solution under the existing framework of ethnic conflicts and legal framework. On the issue of Rohingya,Chinese government pursues the principle of non-intervention in internal affairs and opposes some western countries to intervene in Myanmar's internal affairs under the pretext of human rights. On the other hand,Chinese active mediation has led to negotiations between Myanmar and Bangladesh on the "Rohingya issue"to help the Myanmar government develop the Rakhine State region and create favorable conditions for the fundamental settlement of the ethnic conflict in Myanmar.
引文
(1)Kazi Fahmida Farzana,Memories of Burmese Rohingya Refugees,New York:Palgrave Macmillan, 2018; Khin Maung Saw,Arakan,A Neglected Land and Her Voiceless People, Kha Yee Phaw Publication House,2016;Khin Maung Saw,Arakan, Behind The Mask:The Truth Behind The Name “Rohingya” Yangon:NHL, 2016; T. Gibson, H.James and L.Falvey ed., Rohingyas: Insecurity and Citizenship in Myanmar, Thailand:Thaksin University Press,2016; Ibrahim, Azeem, The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar's Genocide, C. Hurst & Co. Ltd., 2018; Wade, Francis, Myanmar's Enemy Within: Buddhist Violence and the Making of a Muslim ‘Other’, Zed Books, 2017.
(2)一些倾向于罗兴亚人的历史著作在此也被归入罗兴亚人身份认同的研究,因为按照某些学者的看法,这种研究更多地是从构建罗兴亚人的族群身份这一政治目标展开分析和叙述的。
(3)Kazi Fahmida Farzana, Memories of Burmese Rohingya Refugees, New York:Palgrave Macmillan, 2018; Ibrahim, Azeem, The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar's Genocide, C. Hurst & Co. Ltd., 2018.
(4)Khin Maung Saw, Arakan, A Neglected Land and Her Voiceless People, Kha Yee Phaw Publication House, 2016; Khin Maung Saw, Arakan, Behind The Mask: The Truth Behind The Name “Rohingya”, Yangon:NHL, 2016.
(5)缅甸政府和社会把“罗兴亚人”视为危及缅甸安全与生存威胁的孟加拉非法移民,而跨国罗兴亚人网络把罗兴亚人视为缅甸政府“种族清洗”的受害者。
(6)Gin, Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017; Egreteau, Renaud and Rrancois Robinne ed., Metamorphosis: Studies in Social and Political Changes in Maynamar, Singapore: NUS Press, 2017;Ashley South and Marie Lall ed., Citizenship in Myanmar: Ways of Being in and from Burma, Singapore:ISEAS, 2018; Justine Chambers and Gerard McCathy ed., Myanmar Transformed? People, Places and Politics, Singapore: ISEAS, 2018.
(7)“Myanmar, UN Aagencies Sign Mou on Repatriation of Displaced Perspns from Rakhine State”,http://www.namnewsnetwork.org/v3/read.php?id=NDM1MjY3
(8)这三个组织官方网站分别为http://rohingyaunion.org/about-us/;http://www.theerc.net/;https://www.burmataskforce.org/about-us
(9)关于缅甸政府屠杀罗兴亚人话语的演变过程具体参见Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(10)Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(11)Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(12)具体参见“Letter of Concern to Oxford University Press Regarding Dr Jacques Leider and ORE Asian History Series”,https://www.transcend.org/tms/2018/02/letter-of-concern-to-oxford-university-press-regarding-dr-jacques-leider-and-ore-asian-history-series/, 2019-01-20.
(13)“Joint Statement: Rohingya Communities Reject Arakan Rohingya Union and Its Head Dr. Wakar Uddin”, http://www.rohingyablogger.com/2018/09/joint-statement-rohingya-communities.html?m=1, 2019-01-20.
(14)“Joint Statement: Rohingya Communities Reject Arakan Rohingya Union and Its Head Dr. Wakar Uddin”,http://www.rohingyablogger.com/2018/09/joint-statement-rohingya-communities.html?m=1, 2019-01-20.
(15)“EU, Canada Sanction Myanmar Generals”,http://english.sina.com/world/e/2018-06-27/detail-ihencxtu9962314.shtml, 2019-01-20.
(16)“US sanctions Myanmar Military over Rohingya ‘Ethnic Cleansing’”,https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-sanctions-rohingya-myanmar-military-ethnic-cleansing-a8497111.html,2019-01-20.
(17)“14 December 2018—US House Calls Rohingya Crimes Genocide”,http://www.iclmediareview.com/14-december-2018-us-house-calls-rohingya-crimes-genocide,2019-01-20.
(18)人口控制保健法法案于2015年5月通过,规定女性在生育之后隔3年才能再次生育。特别婚姻法案和转变宗教法案均于2015年8月通过,分别对申请结婚和改变宗教信仰的程序作出规定。一夫一妻法案于2015年8月通过,明文规定禁止一夫多妻。
(19)缅甸若开邦总人口约320万,其中政府所谓的孟加拉裔穆斯林约110万,到2017年9月17日昂山素季发表该讲话之前,一些媒体估计,受政府清剿行动影响而出逃的难民约300,000人,主要是政府所谓的孟加拉裔穆斯林。参见“Reuters Exclusive: U.N. Expects up to 300,000 Rohingya Could Flee Myanmar Violence to Bangladesh”,http://www.reuters.tv/v/Vv0/2017/09/07/exclusive-300-000-rohingya-could-flee-myanmar,2018-04-10.
(20)“Aung San Suu Kyi Speech on National Reconciliation and Peace”, http://www.voltairenet.org/article198013.html, 2018-04-07.
(21)“Aung San Suu Kyi Speech on National Reconciliation and Peace”,http://www. voltairenet.org/article198013.html,2018-04-07.
(22)“Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Report on the Rakhine Crisis”,http://www.voltairenet.org/article198352. html,2018-04-07.
(23)温妙埃同时也是被政府任命的落实若开顾问委员会报告的委员会主席。
(24)参见若开邦人道主义救援、重新安置与发展机构网站,http://rakhine.unionenterprise.org
(25)《UMFCCI牵头打出发展若开邦“组合拳”》,缅甸金凤凰新闻,http://www.mmgpmedia.com/local/24903-umfcci,2018年4月7日。
(26)《孟加拉国和缅甸达成协议将合作遣返罗兴亚难民》,新浪网,http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2017-10-25/doc-ifynffnz2384449.shtml,2018年4月7日。
(27)《快讯!恐袭事件后昂山素季首访若开,现场安保力量惊人》,搜狐网,http://www.sohu.com/a/201930185_707525,2018年4月7日。
(28)昂山素季发表讲话之后,美国CNN、英国卫报和BBC就对其讲话中一些所谓的不实之处进行了批驳,具体参见“5 DubiousCclaims Myanmar's Aung San Suu Kyi Made in Her Speech”,CNN,http://cnnphilippines.com/world/2017/09/19/aung-san-suu-kyi-myanmar-dubious-claims-rohingya-rakhine.html;“Fact Check: Aung San Suu Kyi's Speech on the Rohingya Crisis”,The Guardian, https://www. theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/20/fact-check-aung-san-suu-kyi-rohingya-crisis-speech-myanmar;“Rohingya Crisis: Suu Kyi Speech Criticised by Global Leaders”,BBC,http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41329662,2018-04-10.
(29)笔者没有找到1977年和1990年两次罗兴亚人流亡时中国立场和做法的详细资料,但从目前得到一些资料判断,中国在罗兴亚人问题上的立场和做法是一贯的。
(30)中华人民共和国外交部:《王毅:中方提出分三阶段解决缅甸若开邦问题设想》,http://www. fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjbzhd/t1512004.shtml,2018年4月10日。
(31)《外交部:联合国人权组织决议无助于若开邦问题解决》,中央电视台新闻网,http://news.cctv. com/2017/12/06/ARTIlZGx1h3sI9T5zhSiNcHE171206.shtml,2018年4月8日。
(32)《联大高票关注罗兴亚人危机中国投票反对》,搜狐网,https://www.sohu.com/a/212746547_656058,2019年3月15日。
(33)《一天内,中菲古委四国在联合国会议上连续两次投下反对票》,搜狐网,http://www.sohu.com/a/226380662_626685,2019年3月15日。
(34)《联合国将就罗兴亚人危机作通报》,(新加坡)《联合早报》,http://www.zaobao.com/realtime/world/story20181025-902052,2018年10月25日。
(35)《外媒称缅甸罗兴亚危机久拖不决中国将发挥作用》,《参考消息》,转引自新浪网,http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2017-11-20/doc-ifynwnty5712712.shtml
(36)“China Facilitates Informal Meeting at UN to Expedite Refugee Repatriation Process”,http://www. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/china-facilitates-informal-meeting-un-expedite-refugee-repatriation-process.html,2018-04-10.
(37)《中国驻缅甸使馆向缅甸若开邦人道主义援助、重新安置和发展联邦事业机构捐赠2亿缅币》,2018年12月10日,http://mm.china-embassy.org/chn/xwdt/t1620404.htm
(38)“China, Myanmar Ink Oil Pipeline Deal”,Mizzima,http://www.mizzima.com/business-domestic/china-myanmar-ink-oil-pipeline-deal,2018-04-10.
(39)“MoU on Kyaukphyu SEZ likely in August”,https://www.mmtimes.com/business/27137-mou-on-kyauk-phyu-sez-likely-in-august.html,2018-04-08.
(40)另一个最穷的省邦是钦邦。中信还在与缅方谈判,中信要求缅甸按照占股比例出资30%,但缅甸只愿出资15%。
(41)“Myanmar-China Crude Oil Pipeline to Commence Next Month”,https://consult-myanmar.com/2017/04/05/myanmar-china-crude-oil-pipeline-to-commence-next-month/,2018-04-10.
(2)一些倾向于罗兴亚人的历史著作在此也被归入罗兴亚人身份认同的研究,因为按照某些学者的看法,这种研究更多地是从构建罗兴亚人的族群身份这一政治目标展开分析和叙述的。
(3)Kazi Fahmida Farzana, Memories of Burmese Rohingya Refugees, New York:Palgrave Macmillan, 2018; Ibrahim, Azeem, The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar's Genocide, C. Hurst & Co. Ltd., 2018.
(4)Khin Maung Saw, Arakan, A Neglected Land and Her Voiceless People, Kha Yee Phaw Publication House, 2016; Khin Maung Saw, Arakan, Behind The Mask: The Truth Behind The Name “Rohingya”, Yangon:NHL, 2016.
(5)缅甸政府和社会把“罗兴亚人”视为危及缅甸安全与生存威胁的孟加拉非法移民,而跨国罗兴亚人网络把罗兴亚人视为缅甸政府“种族清洗”的受害者。
(6)Gin, Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017; Egreteau, Renaud and Rrancois Robinne ed., Metamorphosis: Studies in Social and Political Changes in Maynamar, Singapore: NUS Press, 2017;Ashley South and Marie Lall ed., Citizenship in Myanmar: Ways of Being in and from Burma, Singapore:ISEAS, 2018; Justine Chambers and Gerard McCathy ed., Myanmar Transformed? People, Places and Politics, Singapore: ISEAS, 2018.
(7)“Myanmar, UN Aagencies Sign Mou on Repatriation of Displaced Perspns from Rakhine State”,http://www.namnewsnetwork.org/v3/read.php?id=NDM1MjY3
(8)这三个组织官方网站分别为http://rohingyaunion.org/about-us/;http://www.theerc.net/;https://www.burmataskforce.org/about-us
(9)关于缅甸政府屠杀罗兴亚人话语的演变过程具体参见Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(10)Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(11)Jacques P. Leider, “Transmutation of the Rohingya Movement in the Post-2012 Rakhine State Crisis”, in Gin Oil Keat and Volker Grabowsky ed., Ethnic and Religious Identity and Integration in Southeast Asia,Chiang Mai:Silkworm Books,2017, pp.217-218.
(12)具体参见“Letter of Concern to Oxford University Press Regarding Dr Jacques Leider and ORE Asian History Series”,https://www.transcend.org/tms/2018/02/letter-of-concern-to-oxford-university-press-regarding-dr-jacques-leider-and-ore-asian-history-series/, 2019-01-20.
(13)“Joint Statement: Rohingya Communities Reject Arakan Rohingya Union and Its Head Dr. Wakar Uddin”, http://www.rohingyablogger.com/2018/09/joint-statement-rohingya-communities.html?m=1, 2019-01-20.
(14)“Joint Statement: Rohingya Communities Reject Arakan Rohingya Union and Its Head Dr. Wakar Uddin”,http://www.rohingyablogger.com/2018/09/joint-statement-rohingya-communities.html?m=1, 2019-01-20.
(15)“EU, Canada Sanction Myanmar Generals”,http://english.sina.com/world/e/2018-06-27/detail-ihencxtu9962314.shtml, 2019-01-20.
(16)“US sanctions Myanmar Military over Rohingya ‘Ethnic Cleansing’”,https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-sanctions-rohingya-myanmar-military-ethnic-cleansing-a8497111.html,2019-01-20.
(17)“14 December 2018—US House Calls Rohingya Crimes Genocide”,http://www.iclmediareview.com/14-december-2018-us-house-calls-rohingya-crimes-genocide,2019-01-20.
(18)人口控制保健法法案于2015年5月通过,规定女性在生育之后隔3年才能再次生育。特别婚姻法案和转变宗教法案均于2015年8月通过,分别对申请结婚和改变宗教信仰的程序作出规定。一夫一妻法案于2015年8月通过,明文规定禁止一夫多妻。
(19)缅甸若开邦总人口约320万,其中政府所谓的孟加拉裔穆斯林约110万,到2017年9月17日昂山素季发表该讲话之前,一些媒体估计,受政府清剿行动影响而出逃的难民约300,000人,主要是政府所谓的孟加拉裔穆斯林。参见“Reuters Exclusive: U.N. Expects up to 300,000 Rohingya Could Flee Myanmar Violence to Bangladesh”,http://www.reuters.tv/v/Vv0/2017/09/07/exclusive-300-000-rohingya-could-flee-myanmar,2018-04-10.
(20)“Aung San Suu Kyi Speech on National Reconciliation and Peace”, http://www.voltairenet.org/article198013.html, 2018-04-07.
(21)“Aung San Suu Kyi Speech on National Reconciliation and Peace”,http://www. voltairenet.org/article198013.html,2018-04-07.
(22)“Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Report on the Rakhine Crisis”,http://www.voltairenet.org/article198352. html,2018-04-07.
(23)温妙埃同时也是被政府任命的落实若开顾问委员会报告的委员会主席。
(24)参见若开邦人道主义救援、重新安置与发展机构网站,http://rakhine.unionenterprise.org
(25)《UMFCCI牵头打出发展若开邦“组合拳”》,缅甸金凤凰新闻,http://www.mmgpmedia.com/local/24903-umfcci,2018年4月7日。
(26)《孟加拉国和缅甸达成协议将合作遣返罗兴亚难民》,新浪网,http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2017-10-25/doc-ifynffnz2384449.shtml,2018年4月7日。
(27)《快讯!恐袭事件后昂山素季首访若开,现场安保力量惊人》,搜狐网,http://www.sohu.com/a/201930185_707525,2018年4月7日。
(28)昂山素季发表讲话之后,美国CNN、英国卫报和BBC就对其讲话中一些所谓的不实之处进行了批驳,具体参见“5 DubiousCclaims Myanmar's Aung San Suu Kyi Made in Her Speech”,CNN,http://cnnphilippines.com/world/2017/09/19/aung-san-suu-kyi-myanmar-dubious-claims-rohingya-rakhine.html;“Fact Check: Aung San Suu Kyi's Speech on the Rohingya Crisis”,The Guardian, https://www. theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/20/fact-check-aung-san-suu-kyi-rohingya-crisis-speech-myanmar;“Rohingya Crisis: Suu Kyi Speech Criticised by Global Leaders”,BBC,http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41329662,2018-04-10.
(29)笔者没有找到1977年和1990年两次罗兴亚人流亡时中国立场和做法的详细资料,但从目前得到一些资料判断,中国在罗兴亚人问题上的立场和做法是一贯的。
(30)中华人民共和国外交部:《王毅:中方提出分三阶段解决缅甸若开邦问题设想》,http://www. fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjbzhd/t1512004.shtml,2018年4月10日。
(31)《外交部:联合国人权组织决议无助于若开邦问题解决》,中央电视台新闻网,http://news.cctv. com/2017/12/06/ARTIlZGx1h3sI9T5zhSiNcHE171206.shtml,2018年4月8日。
(32)《联大高票关注罗兴亚人危机中国投票反对》,搜狐网,https://www.sohu.com/a/212746547_656058,2019年3月15日。
(33)《一天内,中菲古委四国在联合国会议上连续两次投下反对票》,搜狐网,http://www.sohu.com/a/226380662_626685,2019年3月15日。
(34)《联合国将就罗兴亚人危机作通报》,(新加坡)《联合早报》,http://www.zaobao.com/realtime/world/story20181025-902052,2018年10月25日。
(35)《外媒称缅甸罗兴亚危机久拖不决中国将发挥作用》,《参考消息》,转引自新浪网,http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2017-11-20/doc-ifynwnty5712712.shtml
(36)“China Facilitates Informal Meeting at UN to Expedite Refugee Repatriation Process”,http://www. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/china-facilitates-informal-meeting-un-expedite-refugee-repatriation-process.html,2018-04-10.
(37)《中国驻缅甸使馆向缅甸若开邦人道主义援助、重新安置和发展联邦事业机构捐赠2亿缅币》,2018年12月10日,http://mm.china-embassy.org/chn/xwdt/t1620404.htm
(38)“China, Myanmar Ink Oil Pipeline Deal”,Mizzima,http://www.mizzima.com/business-domestic/china-myanmar-ink-oil-pipeline-deal,2018-04-10.
(39)“MoU on Kyaukphyu SEZ likely in August”,https://www.mmtimes.com/business/27137-mou-on-kyauk-phyu-sez-likely-in-august.html,2018-04-08.
(40)另一个最穷的省邦是钦邦。中信还在与缅方谈判,中信要求缅甸按照占股比例出资30%,但缅甸只愿出资15%。
(41)“Myanmar-China Crude Oil Pipeline to Commence Next Month”,https://consult-myanmar.com/2017/04/05/myanmar-china-crude-oil-pipeline-to-commence-next-month/,2018-04-10.