自我效能感和认知风格对刻板印象激活效应的影响
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摘要
通过两个实验考察了自我效能感与认知风格在刻板印象激活效应(个体刻板印象的激活会影响个体随后的行为表现,使之符合所激活的刻板印象)中的作用,初步探讨了刻板印象的激活引发行为改变的内在心理机制。实验1采取单因素被试间实验设计,将被试随机分配到实验组和控制组,接着完成智力测试与自我效能感评价任务。结果发现自我效能感在刻板印象激活效应对于智力测试成绩的影响中起着中介作用。在此基础上,实验2进一步纳入认知风格,首先对被试的握力进行前测,1周后再将被试随机分配到高耐力组和低耐力组进行再测。结果表明:自我效能感在刻板印象激活引发的行为表现中依然起着中介作用。与此同时,虽然场依存的被试更易受刻板印象激活效应的影响,而场独立的被试则不易受到这种情境的影响,但是认知风格未起到中介作用。
Previous research has shown that activating a stereotype can influence subsequent behavior in a stereotype-consistent way. However, the mechanism of stereotype activation to behavior is not clear. Some researches agreed with ideomotor theory. They provided that priming effects result from a direct link between perception and behavior. Some other researches argued that the process between prime to behavior is more complex. Recently, a rapidly burgeoning body of research has developed that suggests the self can play an important role in affecting both the magnitude and direction of prime-to-behavior effects. In this paper, we propose that the activation of a stereotype may elicit higher performance via higher selfefficacy beliefs.In Experiment 1, At first, we let the participants(not enter the formal experiments) wrote down what kind of profession need the high IQ,and what kind of profession doesn't need the high IQ, 50 participants were randomly selected and assigned to the two experiment conditions. Participants in the experimental group were asked to describe typical behaviors and characteristics of professors. Participants in the control group were asked to describe typical behaviors and characteristics of cleaners. After the priming manipulation, participants were asked to answer the general knowledge test. Additionally, for each item, they had to indicate how confident they felt with their answer on a scale ranging from 1(No unconfident) to 5(very confident). We conducted a 2(stereotype activation: athlete vs. loafer) X 2(cognitive style: independence vs. dependence) between-subject design in experiment2. Cognitive style as a new variable came into our experiment. The depend variable was the Grip strength test scores and participants specific self-efficacy that was related to athletic persistence and self-control. The results of Experiment 1 showed that participants who had been primed with professors(experiment group) scored higher on the knowledge test than participants primed with cleaners(control experiment). After the mediation analysis, we got that self-efficacy reliably mediated the relationship between stereotype activation and performance in a general knowledge test. In the experiment 2, the main effect of stereotype activation was significant and the interaction effect between prime and cognitive style was obvious. Through the simple effect analysis, we got that the subjects who were field dependence are more likely to suffer the effect of stereotype activation, and the field independence subjects are less susceptible to this kind of situation. In the same way, the self-efficacy of one's persistence also mediated the relationship between stereotype activation and performance in Grip strength test. Through the two experiments, we discussed the internal mechanism between the stereotype activation and the changed behavior. When activated the positive stereotype traits to participants, the positive stereotype traits would be include into individual's self-concept, altered selfrepresentations, and eventually changed the behavior.
Previous research has shown that activating a stereotype can influence subsequent behavior in a stereotype-consistent way. However, the mechanism of stereotype activation to behavior is not clear. Some researches agreed with ideomotor theory. They provided that priming effects result from a direct link between perception and behavior. Some other researches argued that the process between prime to behavior is more complex. Recently, a rapidly burgeoning body of research has developed that suggests the self can play an important role in affecting both the magnitude and direction of prime-to-behavior effects. In this paper, we propose that the activation of a stereotype may elicit higher performance via higher selfefficacy beliefs.In Experiment 1, At first, we let the participants(not enter the formal experiments) wrote down what kind of profession need the high IQ,and what kind of profession doesn't need the high IQ, 50 participants were randomly selected and assigned to the two experiment conditions. Participants in the experimental group were asked to describe typical behaviors and characteristics of professors. Participants in the control group were asked to describe typical behaviors and characteristics of cleaners. After the priming manipulation, participants were asked to answer the general knowledge test. Additionally, for each item, they had to indicate how confident they felt with their answer on a scale ranging from 1(No unconfident) to 5(very confident). We conducted a 2(stereotype activation: athlete vs. loafer) X 2(cognitive style: independence vs. dependence) between-subject design in experiment2. Cognitive style as a new variable came into our experiment. The depend variable was the Grip strength test scores and participants specific self-efficacy that was related to athletic persistence and self-control. The results of Experiment 1 showed that participants who had been primed with professors(experiment group) scored higher on the knowledge test than participants primed with cleaners(control experiment). After the mediation analysis, we got that self-efficacy reliably mediated the relationship between stereotype activation and performance in a general knowledge test. In the experiment 2, the main effect of stereotype activation was significant and the interaction effect between prime and cognitive style was obvious. Through the simple effect analysis, we got that the subjects who were field dependence are more likely to suffer the effect of stereotype activation, and the field independence subjects are less susceptible to this kind of situation. In the same way, the self-efficacy of one's persistence also mediated the relationship between stereotype activation and performance in Grip strength test. Through the two experiments, we discussed the internal mechanism between the stereotype activation and the changed behavior. When activated the positive stereotype traits to participants, the positive stereotype traits would be include into individual's self-concept, altered selfrepresentations, and eventually changed the behavior.
引文
贺雯,梁宁建.(2006).刻板印象激活的行为效应.心理科学,29(3),740-743.
温忠麟,侯杰泰,张雷.(2005).调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用.心理学报,37(2),268-274.
杨晓莉,刘力,李琼,弯美娜.(2012).社会群体的实体性:回顾与展望.心理科学进展,20(8),1314-1321.
Bandura,A.(1977).Self-efficacy:Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change Psychological Review,84(2),191-215.
Bargh,J.A.,Chen,M.,&Burrows,L.(1996).Automaticity of social behavior Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,71(2),230-244.
Bry,C.,Gabarrot,F.,&Toma,C.(2011).The blond,the dumb and the ugly:Does self-stereotyping mediate prime-to-behavior effects?Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis,8(1),10-19.
Burnette,J.L.,Pollack,J.M.,&Hoyt,C.L.(2010).Individual differences in implicit theories of leadership ability and self-efficacy:Predicting responses to stereotype threat.Journal of Leadership Studies,3(4),46-56.
Campbell,D.T.(1958).Common fate,similarity,and other indices of the status o aggregates of persons as social entities.Behavioral Science,3(1),14-25.
Castano,E.,Yzerbyt,V.,Paladino,M.,&Sacchi,S.(2002).I belong,therefore,Iexist:Ingroup identification,ingroup entitativity,and ingroup bias.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28(2),135-143.
Cervone,D.,Jiwani,N.,&Wood,R.(1991).Goal setting and the differentia influence of self-regulatory processes on complex decision-making performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,61(2),257-266.
Cervone,D.,&Peake,P.K.(1986).Anchoring,efficacy,and action:The influence of judgmental heuristics on self-efficacy judgments and behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50(3),492-501.
Cross,S.E.,Hardin,E.E.,&Gercek-Swing,B.(2011).The what,how,why,and where of self-construal.Personality and Social Psychology Review,15(2),142-179.
DeM arree,K.G.,Wheeler,S.C.,&Petty,R.E.(2005).Priming a new identity Self-monitoring moderates the effects of nonself primes on self-judgments and behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,89(5),657-671.
DeM arree,K.G.,&Loersch,C.(2009).Who am I and who are you?Priming and the influence of self versus other focused attention.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,45(2),440-443.
Dijksterhuis,A.,&Bargh,J.A.(2001).The perception-behavior expressway Automatic effects of social perception on social behavior.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,33(1),1-40.
Dijksterhuis,A.,&van Knippenberg,A.D.(2000).Behavioral indecision:Effects of self-focus on automatic behavior.Social Cognition,18(1),55-74.
Hamilton,D.L.(2007).Understanding the complexities of group perception Broadening the domain.European Journal of Social Psychology,37(6),1077-1101.
Hansen,J.,&W?nke,M.(2009).Think of capable others and you can make it!Self-efficacy mediates the effect of stereotype activation on behavior.Social Cognition,27(1),76-88.
Hoyt,C.L.(2005).The role of leadership efficacy and stereotype activation in women's identification with leadership.Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies,11(4),2-14.
Hull,J.G.,Slone,L.B.,Meteyer,K.B.,&Matthews,A.R.(2002).The nonconsciousness of self-consciousness.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,83(2),406-424.
Kawakami,K.,Young,H.,&Dovidio,J.F.(2002).Automatic stereotyping Category,trait,and behavioral activations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28(1),3-15.
Levy,B.(1996).Improving memory in old age through implicit self-stereotyping Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,71(6),1092-1107.
Lickel,B.,Miller,N.,Stenstrom,D.M.,Denson,T.F.,&Schmader,T.(2006)Vicarious retribution:The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression Personality and Social Psychology Review,10(4),372-390.
mohammadyari,G.(2012).Comparative study of relationship between genera perceived self-efficacy and test anxiety with academic achievement of male and female students.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,69,2119-2123.
Nelson,L.D.,&Norton,M.I.(2005).From student to superhero:Situational primes shape future helping.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,41(4),423-430.
Roets,A.,&van Hiel,A.(2011).The role of need for closure in essentialis entitativity beliefs and prejudice:An epistemic needs approach to racia categorization.British Journal of Social Psychology,50(1),52-73.
Sanna,L.J.,&Pusecker,P.A.(1994).Self-efficacy,valence of self-evaluation and performance.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,20(1),82-92.
Smeesters,D.,Wheeler,S.C.,&Kay,A.C.(2010).Indirect prime-to-behavior effects:The role of perceptions of the self,others,and situations in connecting primed constructs to social behavior.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,42,259-317.
Spencer-Rodgers,J.,Hamilton,D.L.,&Sherman,S.J.(2007).The central role of entitativity in stereotypes of social categories and task groups.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,92(3),369-388.
Spencer-Rodgers,J.,Williams,M.J.,Hamilton,D.L.,Peng,K.P.,&Wang,L(2007).Culture and group perception:Dispositional and stereotypic inferences about novel and national groups.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,93(4),525-543.
Steele,C.M.,&Aronson,J.(1995).Stereotype threat and the intellectual tes performance of African Americans.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69(5),797-811.
Stout,J.G.,Dasgupta,N.,Hunsinger,M.,&McM anus,M.A.(2011).STEMing the tide:Using ingroup experts to inoculate women's self-concept in science technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM).Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(2),255-270.
Walker,W.L.,Diliberto-Macaluso,K.A.,&Altarriba,J.(2011).Priming and assimilation effects in the automatic activation of religious schema.Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,3(4),308-319.
Wheeler,S.C.,DeM arree,K.G.,&Petty,R.E.(2007).Understanding the role o the self in prime-to-behavior effects:The active-self account.Personality and Social Psychology Review,11(3),234-261.
Wheeler,S.C.,&DeM arree,K.G.(2009).Multiple mechanisms of prime-tobehavior effects.Social and Personality Psychology Compass,3(4),566-581.
Wheeler,S.C.,&Petty,R.E.(2001).The effects of stereotype activation on behavior:A review of possible mechanisms.Psychological Bulletin,127(6),797-826.
Witkin,H.A.(1964).Origins of cognitive style.In C.Scheerer(Ed.),Cognition:Theory,research,promise(pp.172-205).New York:Harper&Row.
Wyer,N.A.,Calvini,G.,Nash,A.,&Miles,N.(2010).Priming in interpersona contexts:Implications for affect and behavior.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,36(12),1693-1705.
Wyer,N.A.,Mazzoni,G.,Perfect,T.J.,Calvini,G.,&Neilens,H.L.(2010).When not thinking leads to being and doing stereotype suppression and the self Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(2),152-159.
Wyer,N.A.,Neilens,H.,Perfect,T.J.,&Mazzoni,G.(2011).Automatic and ironic behavior are both mediated by changes in the self-concept.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,47(6),1300-1303.
温忠麟,侯杰泰,张雷.(2005).调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用.心理学报,37(2),268-274.
杨晓莉,刘力,李琼,弯美娜.(2012).社会群体的实体性:回顾与展望.心理科学进展,20(8),1314-1321.
Bandura,A.(1977).Self-efficacy:Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change Psychological Review,84(2),191-215.
Bargh,J.A.,Chen,M.,&Burrows,L.(1996).Automaticity of social behavior Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,71(2),230-244.
Bry,C.,Gabarrot,F.,&Toma,C.(2011).The blond,the dumb and the ugly:Does self-stereotyping mediate prime-to-behavior effects?Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis,8(1),10-19.
Burnette,J.L.,Pollack,J.M.,&Hoyt,C.L.(2010).Individual differences in implicit theories of leadership ability and self-efficacy:Predicting responses to stereotype threat.Journal of Leadership Studies,3(4),46-56.
Campbell,D.T.(1958).Common fate,similarity,and other indices of the status o aggregates of persons as social entities.Behavioral Science,3(1),14-25.
Castano,E.,Yzerbyt,V.,Paladino,M.,&Sacchi,S.(2002).I belong,therefore,Iexist:Ingroup identification,ingroup entitativity,and ingroup bias.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28(2),135-143.
Cervone,D.,Jiwani,N.,&Wood,R.(1991).Goal setting and the differentia influence of self-regulatory processes on complex decision-making performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,61(2),257-266.
Cervone,D.,&Peake,P.K.(1986).Anchoring,efficacy,and action:The influence of judgmental heuristics on self-efficacy judgments and behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50(3),492-501.
Cross,S.E.,Hardin,E.E.,&Gercek-Swing,B.(2011).The what,how,why,and where of self-construal.Personality and Social Psychology Review,15(2),142-179.
DeM arree,K.G.,Wheeler,S.C.,&Petty,R.E.(2005).Priming a new identity Self-monitoring moderates the effects of nonself primes on self-judgments and behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,89(5),657-671.
DeM arree,K.G.,&Loersch,C.(2009).Who am I and who are you?Priming and the influence of self versus other focused attention.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,45(2),440-443.
Dijksterhuis,A.,&Bargh,J.A.(2001).The perception-behavior expressway Automatic effects of social perception on social behavior.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,33(1),1-40.
Dijksterhuis,A.,&van Knippenberg,A.D.(2000).Behavioral indecision:Effects of self-focus on automatic behavior.Social Cognition,18(1),55-74.
Hamilton,D.L.(2007).Understanding the complexities of group perception Broadening the domain.European Journal of Social Psychology,37(6),1077-1101.
Hansen,J.,&W?nke,M.(2009).Think of capable others and you can make it!Self-efficacy mediates the effect of stereotype activation on behavior.Social Cognition,27(1),76-88.
Hoyt,C.L.(2005).The role of leadership efficacy and stereotype activation in women's identification with leadership.Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies,11(4),2-14.
Hull,J.G.,Slone,L.B.,Meteyer,K.B.,&Matthews,A.R.(2002).The nonconsciousness of self-consciousness.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,83(2),406-424.
Kawakami,K.,Young,H.,&Dovidio,J.F.(2002).Automatic stereotyping Category,trait,and behavioral activations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28(1),3-15.
Levy,B.(1996).Improving memory in old age through implicit self-stereotyping Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,71(6),1092-1107.
Lickel,B.,Miller,N.,Stenstrom,D.M.,Denson,T.F.,&Schmader,T.(2006)Vicarious retribution:The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression Personality and Social Psychology Review,10(4),372-390.
mohammadyari,G.(2012).Comparative study of relationship between genera perceived self-efficacy and test anxiety with academic achievement of male and female students.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,69,2119-2123.
Nelson,L.D.,&Norton,M.I.(2005).From student to superhero:Situational primes shape future helping.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,41(4),423-430.
Roets,A.,&van Hiel,A.(2011).The role of need for closure in essentialis entitativity beliefs and prejudice:An epistemic needs approach to racia categorization.British Journal of Social Psychology,50(1),52-73.
Sanna,L.J.,&Pusecker,P.A.(1994).Self-efficacy,valence of self-evaluation and performance.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,20(1),82-92.
Smeesters,D.,Wheeler,S.C.,&Kay,A.C.(2010).Indirect prime-to-behavior effects:The role of perceptions of the self,others,and situations in connecting primed constructs to social behavior.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,42,259-317.
Spencer-Rodgers,J.,Hamilton,D.L.,&Sherman,S.J.(2007).The central role of entitativity in stereotypes of social categories and task groups.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,92(3),369-388.
Spencer-Rodgers,J.,Williams,M.J.,Hamilton,D.L.,Peng,K.P.,&Wang,L(2007).Culture and group perception:Dispositional and stereotypic inferences about novel and national groups.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,93(4),525-543.
Steele,C.M.,&Aronson,J.(1995).Stereotype threat and the intellectual tes performance of African Americans.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69(5),797-811.
Stout,J.G.,Dasgupta,N.,Hunsinger,M.,&McM anus,M.A.(2011).STEMing the tide:Using ingroup experts to inoculate women's self-concept in science technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM).Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(2),255-270.
Walker,W.L.,Diliberto-Macaluso,K.A.,&Altarriba,J.(2011).Priming and assimilation effects in the automatic activation of religious schema.Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,3(4),308-319.
Wheeler,S.C.,DeM arree,K.G.,&Petty,R.E.(2007).Understanding the role o the self in prime-to-behavior effects:The active-self account.Personality and Social Psychology Review,11(3),234-261.
Wheeler,S.C.,&DeM arree,K.G.(2009).Multiple mechanisms of prime-tobehavior effects.Social and Personality Psychology Compass,3(4),566-581.
Wheeler,S.C.,&Petty,R.E.(2001).The effects of stereotype activation on behavior:A review of possible mechanisms.Psychological Bulletin,127(6),797-826.
Witkin,H.A.(1964).Origins of cognitive style.In C.Scheerer(Ed.),Cognition:Theory,research,promise(pp.172-205).New York:Harper&Row.
Wyer,N.A.,Calvini,G.,Nash,A.,&Miles,N.(2010).Priming in interpersona contexts:Implications for affect and behavior.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,36(12),1693-1705.
Wyer,N.A.,Mazzoni,G.,Perfect,T.J.,Calvini,G.,&Neilens,H.L.(2010).When not thinking leads to being and doing stereotype suppression and the self Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(2),152-159.
Wyer,N.A.,Neilens,H.,Perfect,T.J.,&Mazzoni,G.(2011).Automatic and ironic behavior are both mediated by changes in the self-concept.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,47(6),1300-1303.