早年不幸对健康不平等的长远影响:生命历程与双重累积劣势
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摘要
本研究在生命历程分析的基础上,提出用双重累积劣势理论来解释早年不幸经历对健康不平等的影响机制,并利用中国健康与养老追踪调查数据(2011-2014年)对该理论进行实证阐释。多种回归模型的分析结果显示,早年不幸经历使得人们成年后的健康状况明显差于没有不幸经历的群体。即使经历向上的社会流动,也难以抵消早年不幸经历给健康带来的不利影响。双重劣势累积过程具体表现为:早年不幸经历种类数越多或者持续时间越长,对健康的负向影响力也就越大;早年不幸经历在生命历程中带来的教育、就业机会和经济地位的下降,以及健康风险和消极情绪的上升,间接给成年后的健康状况带来不利影响。
Scholars in sociology of health have increasingly adopted a longitudinal and historical approach to explore the mechanisms of health inequality. This study has proposed a life-course theory of dual cumulative disadvantage. The author argues that not only early life misfortune has durable effects on individual health throughout the lifespan,the cumulative disadvantage over the lifespan due to the early life misfortune also increases individual health inequality. It is this dual interaction between the early life misfortune and its effects over the lifespan that explains the persistent health inequality in our society. To illustrate this theoretical model,the study use data from the CHARLS( 2011-2014) to analyze health inequality among Chinese adults age 40 to 80 to show that early life misfortune indeed has a significant and negative impact on individual health. The study also has demonstrated that the increase in both number of cases and time of exposure of early life misfortune will result in significant and negative impact on individual health. Specifically,the early life misfortune leads to a significant decrease in life opportunities such as education,employment,and social-economic status,which further erodes individual health. Consequently,the early life misfortunecreates an exponential effect on individual health. The paper concludes with a discussion on how our results may shed light on the public policies in health promotion in contemporary China.
Scholars in sociology of health have increasingly adopted a longitudinal and historical approach to explore the mechanisms of health inequality. This study has proposed a life-course theory of dual cumulative disadvantage. The author argues that not only early life misfortune has durable effects on individual health throughout the lifespan,the cumulative disadvantage over the lifespan due to the early life misfortune also increases individual health inequality. It is this dual interaction between the early life misfortune and its effects over the lifespan that explains the persistent health inequality in our society. To illustrate this theoretical model,the study use data from the CHARLS( 2011-2014) to analyze health inequality among Chinese adults age 40 to 80 to show that early life misfortune indeed has a significant and negative impact on individual health. The study also has demonstrated that the increase in both number of cases and time of exposure of early life misfortune will result in significant and negative impact on individual health. Specifically,the early life misfortune leads to a significant decrease in life opportunities such as education,employment,and social-economic status,which further erodes individual health. Consequently,the early life misfortunecreates an exponential effect on individual health. The paper concludes with a discussion on how our results may shed light on the public policies in health promotion in contemporary China.
引文
陈晶琦,2006,《我国儿童虐待及受害儿童心理健康的研究进展》,《中华儿科杂志》第8期。
焦开山,2014,《健康不平等影响因素研究》,《社会学研究》第5期。
彭希哲、胡湛,2015,《当代中国家庭变迁与家庭政策重构》,《中国社会科学》第12期。
王甫勤,2011,《社会流动有助于降低健康不平等吗?》,《社会学研究》第2期。
张秀兰、徐月宾,2003,《建构中国的发展型家庭政策》,《中国社会科学》第6期。
Adams,Peter,Michael D.Hurd,Daniel Mc Fadden,Angela Merrill&Tiago Ribeiro 2003,“Healthy,Wealthy,and Wise?Tests for Direct Causal Paths Between Health and Socioeconomic Status.”Journal of Econometrics 112(1).
Baert,Patrick 1992,Time,Self and Social Being Temporality within a Sociological Context.Newcastle:Athenaeum Press.
Barker,David 1990,“The Fetal and Infant Origins of Adult Disease.”British Medical Journal 301(6761).
---1998,“Mothers,Babies and Health in Later Life.”Public Health 113(5).
Berg,Gerard,Pia R.Pinger&Johannes Schoch 2016,“Instrumental Variable Estimation of the Causal Effect of Hunger Early in Life on Health Later in Life.”The Economic Journal 126(591).
Blackwell,Debra,Mark D.Hayward&Eileen MCrimmins 2001,“Does Childhood Health Affect Chronic Morbidity in Later Life?”Social Science and Medicine 52(8).
Burstr9m,Bo&Peeter Fredlund 2001,“Self Rated Health:Is It as Good a Predictor of Subsequent Mortality among Adults in Lower as well as in Higher Social Classes?”Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 55(11).
Cohen,Sheldon,Kessler Ronald&Gordon Lynn Underwood 1995,“Strategies for Measuring Stress in Studies of Psychiatric and Physical Disorders.”In S.Cohen,R.C.Kessler&G.L.Underwood(eds.),Measuring Stress:A Guide for Health and Social Scientists.New York:Oxford University Press.
Currie,Janet 2011,“Inequality at Birth:Some Causes and Consequences.”American Economic Review 3.
Dannefer,Dale 2003,“Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage and the Life Course:Cross-Fertilizing Age and Social Science Theory.”The Journals of Gerontology Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 58(6).
Dickerson,Sally&Kemeny Margare 2004,“Acute Stressors and Cortisol Responses:A Theoretical Integration and Synthesis of Laboratory Research.”Psychological Bulletin 130(3).
Diprete,Thomas&Gregory M.Eirich 2006,“Cumulative Advantage as a Mechanism for Inequality:A Review of Theoretical and Empirical Developments.”Annual Review of Sociology 32.
Dong,Maxia,Wayne H.Giles,Vincent J.Felitti,Shanta R.Dube&Robert F.Anda 2004,“Insights into Causal Pathways for Ischemic Heart Disease.”Circulation 110(13).
Drukker,Marjan,Charles Kaplan,Frans Feron&Jimvan Van Os 2003,“Children's HealthRelated Quality of Life,Neighborhood Socio-Economic Deprivation and Social Capital.AContextual Analysis.”Social Science and Medicine 57(5).
Elder,H.Glen 1998,“The Life Course as Developmental Theory.”Child Development 69(1).
Elo,Irma 2009,“Social Class Differentials in Health and Mortality:Patterns and Explanations in Comparative Perspective.”Annual Review of Sociology 35.
Evans,Gary&Pilyoung Kim 2007,“Childhood Poverty and Health:Cumulative Risk Exposure and Stress Dysregulation.”Psychological Science 18(11).
Ferraro,Kenneth&Jessica A.Kelley-Moore 2003,“Cumulative Disadvantage and Health:LongTerm Consequences of Obesity?”American Sociological Review 68(5).
Ferraro,Kenneth&Tetyana Pylypiv Shippee 2009,“Aging and Cumulative Inequality:How Does Inequality Get under the Skin?”The Gerontologist 49(3).
Ferraro,Kenneth,Markus H.Schafer&Lindsay R.Wilkinson 2016,“Childhood Disadvantage and Health Problems in Middle and Later Life:Early Imprints on Physical Health?”American Sociological Review 81(1).
Ferrie,Jane,Martin J.Shipley,Stephen A.Stansfeld,George Davey Smith&Michael Marmot2003,“Future Uncertainty and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health:The Whitehall IIStudy.”Social Science and Medicine 57(4).
Foucault,Michel 2012,Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison.New York:Vintag Books.
Friedman,Esther,Jennifer Karas Montez,Connor Mc Devitt Sheehan,Tara L.Guenewald&Teresa E.Seeman 2015,“Childhood Adversities and Adult Cardiometabolic Health:Does the Quantity,Timing,and Type of Adversity Matter?”Journal of Aging and Health 27(8).
Frijters,Paul&Aydogan Ulker 2008,“Robustness in Health Research:Do Differences in Health Measures,Techniques,and Time Frame Matter?”Journal of Health Economics 27(6).
Fu,Qiang,Cary Wu,Heqing Liu,Zhilei Shi&Jiaxin Gu 2018,“Live Like Mosquitoes:Hukou,Rural-urban Disparity,and Depression.”Chinese Journal of Sociology 4.
George,Linda 2014,“Taking Time Seriously:A Call to Action in Mental Health Research.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 55.
Giddens,Anthony 1984,The Constitution of Society:Outline of the Theory of Structuration.Berkeley:University of California Press.
Goodwin,Renee,Christina W.Hoven,Robert Murison&Robert Murison 2003,“Association Between Childhood Physical Abuse and Gastrointestinal Disorders and Migraine in Adulthood.”American Journal of Public Health 93(7).
Greenfield,Emily&Nadine F.Marks 2009,“Violence from Parents in Childhood and Obesity in Adulthood:Using Food in Response to Stress as A Mediator of Risk.”Social Science&Medicine 68(5).
Grundy,Emily&Andy Sloggett 2003,“Health Inequalities in the Older Population:The Role of Personal Capital,Social Resources and Socio-Economic Circumstances.”Social Science&Medicine 56(5).
Hassard,Jo 2016,The Sociology of Time.New York:Springer Press.
Jylh,Marja 2009,“What is Self-Rated Health and Why Does it Predict Mortality?Towards a Unified Conceptual Model.”Social Science&Medicine 69(3).
Karlson,Kristian,Anders Holm&Richard Breen 2012,“Comparing Regression Coefficients between Same-Sample Nested Models Using Logit And Probit:A New Method.”Sociological Methodology 42(1).
Levine,Morgan,Cole Steven,Weir David&Eileen Crimmins 2015,“Childhood and Later Life Stressors and Increased Inflammatory Gene Expression at Older Ages.”Social Science&Medicine 130.
Lloyd,Donald&John Taylor 2006,“Lifetime Cumulative Adversity,Mental Health and the Risk of Becoming A Smoker.”Health 10(1).
Lloyd,Donald&Jay Turner 2008,“Cumulative Lifetime Adversities and Alcohol Dependence in Adolescence and Young Adulthood.”Drug and Alcohol Dependence 93(3).
Mcdonough,Peggy,Amanda Sacker&Richard D.Wiggins 2005,“Time on My Side?Life Course Trajectories of Poverty and Health.”Social Science&Medicine 61(8).
Mc Lanahan Sara,Laura Tach&Daniel Schneider 2013,“The Causal Effects of Father Absence.”Annual Review of Sociology 39.
Merton,Robert 1968,“The Matthew Effect in Science.”Science 159.
Miller,Gregory E.,Chen Edith&Parker Karen 2011,“Psychological Stress in Childhood and Susceptibility to the Chronic Diseases of Aging:Moving Toward A Model of Behavioral and Biological Mechanisms.”Psychological Bulletin 137(6).
Montez,Jennifer&Mark D.Hayward 2014,“Cumulative Childhood Adversity,Educational Attainment,and Active Life Expectancy among US Adults.”Demography 51(2).
Mu,Ren&Xiaobo Zhang 2011,“Why Does the Great Chinese Famine Affect the Male and Female Survivors Differently?Mortality Selection Versus Son Preference.”Economics&Human Biology 9(1).
Pearlin,Leonard,Scott Schieman,Elena M.Fazio&Stephen C.Meersman 2005,“Stress,Health,and the Life Course:Some Conceptual Perspectives.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46(2).
Schafer,Markus,Kenneth F.Ferraro&Sarah A.Mustillo 2011,“Children of Misfortune:Early Adversity and Cumulative Inequality in Perceived Life Trajectories.”American Journal of Sociology 116(4).
Schafer,Markus,Lindsay R.Wilkinson&Kenneth F.Ferraro 2013,“Childhood(Mis)Fortune,Educational Attainment,and Adult Health:Contingent Benefits of a College Degree?”Social Forces 91(3).
Sen,Amartya 1981,Poverty and Famines:An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
---1983,“Poor,Relatively Speaking.”Oxford Economic Papers 35(2).
Smith,George Davey&John Morris 1994,“Increasing Inequalities in the Health of the Nation:Government Action at Last?”British Medical Journal 309(6967).
Sonderskov,Kim Mannemar&Dinesen Peter Thisted 2014,“Danish Exceptionalism:Explaining the Unique Increase in Social Trust over the Past 30 Years.”European Sociological Review 30(6).
Turner,R.Jay&Donald A.Lloyd 1995,“Lifetime Traumas and Mental Health:The Significance of Cumulative Adversity.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 36.
Warren,J.Robert 2016,“Does Growing Childhood Socioeconomic Inequality Mean Future Inequality in Adult Health?”The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 663.
Willson,Andrea,Kim M.Shuey&Glen H.Elder 2007,“Cumulative Advantage Processes as Mechanisms of Inequality in Life Course Health.”American Journal of Sociology 112(6).
(1)我们不讨论偶然性或无持续时间的不幸事件,因为这类事件通常不会对人们的生理或心理造成持久的印记(参见Dickerson&Margare,2004)。
(1)如果死亡选择确实存在,那么方程2所估计的就是早年不幸经历影响效应的下限,因果关系依然得以证实。
(1)在本研究中,我们认为是否残疾是影响个人发展的重要因素,同时也是个人长期不利的生活和工作环境所累积的健康风险的直接结果。
(1)早年经历的追溯数据依赖于被访者对早年经历或发生事件的回忆,总会有部分遗忘或记忆偏差。但是已有研究结果证实,尽管对远端事件的细节记忆可能会随着时间的推移而逐渐消失,但对早年不幸经历的记忆是比较稳定的(参见Ferraro et al.,2016)。
(2)选取“挨饿”这一指标,主要是考虑到在所选取的早年不幸经历的8个指标中,挨饿经历具有更为显著的时间持续性,即使在不同年龄段,挨饿所体现的压力属性也是基本稳定的。
(3)使用该指标衡量绝对贫困,一是考虑到本文研究的时间跨度较长,以收入划定贫困线来识别很难纵向比较;二是1923-1990年间,我国农村地区以饥饿为识别标准的绝对贫困发生的概率是比较高的。
(1)国际上,大多国家将学龄期的开始年龄规定为6周岁。在我国新中国成立前儿童7周岁入学,而新中国成立后满6周岁即可入学,现在多将0-5岁界定为童年期。我国发展心理学界一般把青少年期界定为13-17岁这一年龄段,相当于中学教育阶段。童年期向青少年期过渡的时期是少年期,也称“过渡期”,我们把少年期的年龄界限划为6-12周岁。分别考察0-5岁、6-12岁和13-17岁这三个年龄段被访人是否有挨饿的经历。如果被访人回答这三个时间段都没有挨饿的经历,设置为0;如果在其中一个时间段有挨饿经历,我们将其设置为1;如果在其中两个时间段有挨饿的经历,设置为2;如果在三个时间段都有挨饿的经历,设置为3。
(1)在进行调节变量估计时,早年不幸经历和受教育年限、社会经济地位等变量都进行了中心化处理。限于篇幅,该部分估计结果备索,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系。
(2)利用覆盖全国各省市120个站点的降水量数据,测算逐年5-9月降水量、多年平均降水量和标准差;然后将被访人从0-17岁所经历年份的降水等级逐年相加,构建一个数值介于0-18之间的旱涝灾害发生的频率变量。值越大代表被访人在0-17岁时经历的旱涝灾害越严重。
(3)囿于版面原因,此处未报告检验结果汇总,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系。
(1)之所以选择46岁组,主要考虑“中国健康与养老追踪调查”重点调查的是45岁以上群体。从46岁年龄队列开始人数较多,统计结果也更为稳健。
(1)囿于版面原因,此处估计结果没有列出,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系获取。
(1)大量医学研究结果表明,早期经历不幸引发人体内分泌和自主放电模式的改变,放大已经由巨噬细胞实例化的促炎症环境,所产生的炎症推动了最终促进慢性疾病的前驱致病机制(参见Miller et al.,2011)。
焦开山,2014,《健康不平等影响因素研究》,《社会学研究》第5期。
彭希哲、胡湛,2015,《当代中国家庭变迁与家庭政策重构》,《中国社会科学》第12期。
王甫勤,2011,《社会流动有助于降低健康不平等吗?》,《社会学研究》第2期。
张秀兰、徐月宾,2003,《建构中国的发展型家庭政策》,《中国社会科学》第6期。
Adams,Peter,Michael D.Hurd,Daniel Mc Fadden,Angela Merrill&Tiago Ribeiro 2003,“Healthy,Wealthy,and Wise?Tests for Direct Causal Paths Between Health and Socioeconomic Status.”Journal of Econometrics 112(1).
Baert,Patrick 1992,Time,Self and Social Being Temporality within a Sociological Context.Newcastle:Athenaeum Press.
Barker,David 1990,“The Fetal and Infant Origins of Adult Disease.”British Medical Journal 301(6761).
---1998,“Mothers,Babies and Health in Later Life.”Public Health 113(5).
Berg,Gerard,Pia R.Pinger&Johannes Schoch 2016,“Instrumental Variable Estimation of the Causal Effect of Hunger Early in Life on Health Later in Life.”The Economic Journal 126(591).
Blackwell,Debra,Mark D.Hayward&Eileen MCrimmins 2001,“Does Childhood Health Affect Chronic Morbidity in Later Life?”Social Science and Medicine 52(8).
Burstr9m,Bo&Peeter Fredlund 2001,“Self Rated Health:Is It as Good a Predictor of Subsequent Mortality among Adults in Lower as well as in Higher Social Classes?”Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 55(11).
Cohen,Sheldon,Kessler Ronald&Gordon Lynn Underwood 1995,“Strategies for Measuring Stress in Studies of Psychiatric and Physical Disorders.”In S.Cohen,R.C.Kessler&G.L.Underwood(eds.),Measuring Stress:A Guide for Health and Social Scientists.New York:Oxford University Press.
Currie,Janet 2011,“Inequality at Birth:Some Causes and Consequences.”American Economic Review 3.
Dannefer,Dale 2003,“Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage and the Life Course:Cross-Fertilizing Age and Social Science Theory.”The Journals of Gerontology Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 58(6).
Dickerson,Sally&Kemeny Margare 2004,“Acute Stressors and Cortisol Responses:A Theoretical Integration and Synthesis of Laboratory Research.”Psychological Bulletin 130(3).
Diprete,Thomas&Gregory M.Eirich 2006,“Cumulative Advantage as a Mechanism for Inequality:A Review of Theoretical and Empirical Developments.”Annual Review of Sociology 32.
Dong,Maxia,Wayne H.Giles,Vincent J.Felitti,Shanta R.Dube&Robert F.Anda 2004,“Insights into Causal Pathways for Ischemic Heart Disease.”Circulation 110(13).
Drukker,Marjan,Charles Kaplan,Frans Feron&Jimvan Van Os 2003,“Children's HealthRelated Quality of Life,Neighborhood Socio-Economic Deprivation and Social Capital.AContextual Analysis.”Social Science and Medicine 57(5).
Elder,H.Glen 1998,“The Life Course as Developmental Theory.”Child Development 69(1).
Elo,Irma 2009,“Social Class Differentials in Health and Mortality:Patterns and Explanations in Comparative Perspective.”Annual Review of Sociology 35.
Evans,Gary&Pilyoung Kim 2007,“Childhood Poverty and Health:Cumulative Risk Exposure and Stress Dysregulation.”Psychological Science 18(11).
Ferraro,Kenneth&Jessica A.Kelley-Moore 2003,“Cumulative Disadvantage and Health:LongTerm Consequences of Obesity?”American Sociological Review 68(5).
Ferraro,Kenneth&Tetyana Pylypiv Shippee 2009,“Aging and Cumulative Inequality:How Does Inequality Get under the Skin?”The Gerontologist 49(3).
Ferraro,Kenneth,Markus H.Schafer&Lindsay R.Wilkinson 2016,“Childhood Disadvantage and Health Problems in Middle and Later Life:Early Imprints on Physical Health?”American Sociological Review 81(1).
Ferrie,Jane,Martin J.Shipley,Stephen A.Stansfeld,George Davey Smith&Michael Marmot2003,“Future Uncertainty and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health:The Whitehall IIStudy.”Social Science and Medicine 57(4).
Foucault,Michel 2012,Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison.New York:Vintag Books.
Friedman,Esther,Jennifer Karas Montez,Connor Mc Devitt Sheehan,Tara L.Guenewald&Teresa E.Seeman 2015,“Childhood Adversities and Adult Cardiometabolic Health:Does the Quantity,Timing,and Type of Adversity Matter?”Journal of Aging and Health 27(8).
Frijters,Paul&Aydogan Ulker 2008,“Robustness in Health Research:Do Differences in Health Measures,Techniques,and Time Frame Matter?”Journal of Health Economics 27(6).
Fu,Qiang,Cary Wu,Heqing Liu,Zhilei Shi&Jiaxin Gu 2018,“Live Like Mosquitoes:Hukou,Rural-urban Disparity,and Depression.”Chinese Journal of Sociology 4.
George,Linda 2014,“Taking Time Seriously:A Call to Action in Mental Health Research.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 55.
Giddens,Anthony 1984,The Constitution of Society:Outline of the Theory of Structuration.Berkeley:University of California Press.
Goodwin,Renee,Christina W.Hoven,Robert Murison&Robert Murison 2003,“Association Between Childhood Physical Abuse and Gastrointestinal Disorders and Migraine in Adulthood.”American Journal of Public Health 93(7).
Greenfield,Emily&Nadine F.Marks 2009,“Violence from Parents in Childhood and Obesity in Adulthood:Using Food in Response to Stress as A Mediator of Risk.”Social Science&Medicine 68(5).
Grundy,Emily&Andy Sloggett 2003,“Health Inequalities in the Older Population:The Role of Personal Capital,Social Resources and Socio-Economic Circumstances.”Social Science&Medicine 56(5).
Hassard,Jo 2016,The Sociology of Time.New York:Springer Press.
Jylh,Marja 2009,“What is Self-Rated Health and Why Does it Predict Mortality?Towards a Unified Conceptual Model.”Social Science&Medicine 69(3).
Karlson,Kristian,Anders Holm&Richard Breen 2012,“Comparing Regression Coefficients between Same-Sample Nested Models Using Logit And Probit:A New Method.”Sociological Methodology 42(1).
Levine,Morgan,Cole Steven,Weir David&Eileen Crimmins 2015,“Childhood and Later Life Stressors and Increased Inflammatory Gene Expression at Older Ages.”Social Science&Medicine 130.
Lloyd,Donald&John Taylor 2006,“Lifetime Cumulative Adversity,Mental Health and the Risk of Becoming A Smoker.”Health 10(1).
Lloyd,Donald&Jay Turner 2008,“Cumulative Lifetime Adversities and Alcohol Dependence in Adolescence and Young Adulthood.”Drug and Alcohol Dependence 93(3).
Mcdonough,Peggy,Amanda Sacker&Richard D.Wiggins 2005,“Time on My Side?Life Course Trajectories of Poverty and Health.”Social Science&Medicine 61(8).
Mc Lanahan Sara,Laura Tach&Daniel Schneider 2013,“The Causal Effects of Father Absence.”Annual Review of Sociology 39.
Merton,Robert 1968,“The Matthew Effect in Science.”Science 159.
Miller,Gregory E.,Chen Edith&Parker Karen 2011,“Psychological Stress in Childhood and Susceptibility to the Chronic Diseases of Aging:Moving Toward A Model of Behavioral and Biological Mechanisms.”Psychological Bulletin 137(6).
Montez,Jennifer&Mark D.Hayward 2014,“Cumulative Childhood Adversity,Educational Attainment,and Active Life Expectancy among US Adults.”Demography 51(2).
Mu,Ren&Xiaobo Zhang 2011,“Why Does the Great Chinese Famine Affect the Male and Female Survivors Differently?Mortality Selection Versus Son Preference.”Economics&Human Biology 9(1).
Pearlin,Leonard,Scott Schieman,Elena M.Fazio&Stephen C.Meersman 2005,“Stress,Health,and the Life Course:Some Conceptual Perspectives.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46(2).
Schafer,Markus,Kenneth F.Ferraro&Sarah A.Mustillo 2011,“Children of Misfortune:Early Adversity and Cumulative Inequality in Perceived Life Trajectories.”American Journal of Sociology 116(4).
Schafer,Markus,Lindsay R.Wilkinson&Kenneth F.Ferraro 2013,“Childhood(Mis)Fortune,Educational Attainment,and Adult Health:Contingent Benefits of a College Degree?”Social Forces 91(3).
Sen,Amartya 1981,Poverty and Famines:An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
---1983,“Poor,Relatively Speaking.”Oxford Economic Papers 35(2).
Smith,George Davey&John Morris 1994,“Increasing Inequalities in the Health of the Nation:Government Action at Last?”British Medical Journal 309(6967).
Sonderskov,Kim Mannemar&Dinesen Peter Thisted 2014,“Danish Exceptionalism:Explaining the Unique Increase in Social Trust over the Past 30 Years.”European Sociological Review 30(6).
Turner,R.Jay&Donald A.Lloyd 1995,“Lifetime Traumas and Mental Health:The Significance of Cumulative Adversity.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior 36.
Warren,J.Robert 2016,“Does Growing Childhood Socioeconomic Inequality Mean Future Inequality in Adult Health?”The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 663.
Willson,Andrea,Kim M.Shuey&Glen H.Elder 2007,“Cumulative Advantage Processes as Mechanisms of Inequality in Life Course Health.”American Journal of Sociology 112(6).
(1)我们不讨论偶然性或无持续时间的不幸事件,因为这类事件通常不会对人们的生理或心理造成持久的印记(参见Dickerson&Margare,2004)。
(1)如果死亡选择确实存在,那么方程2所估计的就是早年不幸经历影响效应的下限,因果关系依然得以证实。
(1)在本研究中,我们认为是否残疾是影响个人发展的重要因素,同时也是个人长期不利的生活和工作环境所累积的健康风险的直接结果。
(1)早年经历的追溯数据依赖于被访者对早年经历或发生事件的回忆,总会有部分遗忘或记忆偏差。但是已有研究结果证实,尽管对远端事件的细节记忆可能会随着时间的推移而逐渐消失,但对早年不幸经历的记忆是比较稳定的(参见Ferraro et al.,2016)。
(2)选取“挨饿”这一指标,主要是考虑到在所选取的早年不幸经历的8个指标中,挨饿经历具有更为显著的时间持续性,即使在不同年龄段,挨饿所体现的压力属性也是基本稳定的。
(3)使用该指标衡量绝对贫困,一是考虑到本文研究的时间跨度较长,以收入划定贫困线来识别很难纵向比较;二是1923-1990年间,我国农村地区以饥饿为识别标准的绝对贫困发生的概率是比较高的。
(1)国际上,大多国家将学龄期的开始年龄规定为6周岁。在我国新中国成立前儿童7周岁入学,而新中国成立后满6周岁即可入学,现在多将0-5岁界定为童年期。我国发展心理学界一般把青少年期界定为13-17岁这一年龄段,相当于中学教育阶段。童年期向青少年期过渡的时期是少年期,也称“过渡期”,我们把少年期的年龄界限划为6-12周岁。分别考察0-5岁、6-12岁和13-17岁这三个年龄段被访人是否有挨饿的经历。如果被访人回答这三个时间段都没有挨饿的经历,设置为0;如果在其中一个时间段有挨饿经历,我们将其设置为1;如果在其中两个时间段有挨饿的经历,设置为2;如果在三个时间段都有挨饿的经历,设置为3。
(1)在进行调节变量估计时,早年不幸经历和受教育年限、社会经济地位等变量都进行了中心化处理。限于篇幅,该部分估计结果备索,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系。
(2)利用覆盖全国各省市120个站点的降水量数据,测算逐年5-9月降水量、多年平均降水量和标准差;然后将被访人从0-17岁所经历年份的降水等级逐年相加,构建一个数值介于0-18之间的旱涝灾害发生的频率变量。值越大代表被访人在0-17岁时经历的旱涝灾害越严重。
(3)囿于版面原因,此处未报告检验结果汇总,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系。
(1)之所以选择46岁组,主要考虑“中国健康与养老追踪调查”重点调查的是45岁以上群体。从46岁年龄队列开始人数较多,统计结果也更为稳健。
(1)囿于版面原因,此处估计结果没有列出,有兴趣的读者可与作者联系获取。
(1)大量医学研究结果表明,早期经历不幸引发人体内分泌和自主放电模式的改变,放大已经由巨噬细胞实例化的促炎症环境,所产生的炎症推动了最终促进慢性疾病的前驱致病机制(参见Miller et al.,2011)。