武装组织的社会性克制:参与进程与儿童兵规范的传播
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摘要
本文的核心问题是:为什么有的武装组织放弃招募和使用儿童兵,选择社会性克制呢?该问题源于经验现实的困惑。在当代内战与武装冲突中,儿童沦为武装组织袭击和招募的目标。招募和使用儿童兵是武装组织理性、现实的选择。但是,越来越多的武装组织选择放弃招募和使用儿童兵,保持行为克制。武力打击、法律威慑与惩罚、间接政治施压和经济制裁有一定的作用,但是更容易激起武装组织的反抗和报复,进而招募更多的儿童兵。
     本文提出了以“参与进程”为核心概念的理论分析框架,旨在探讨武装组织选择社会性克制的动力与进程问题。参与进程是指:行动者参加、维持和发展社会实践与社会意义的动态关系。社会性克制是指:有能力、有意愿招募和使用儿童兵的武装组织放弃招募和使用儿童兵,接受国际人道主义规范,保持自我行为克制。
     本文假设:参与进程有助于说服武装组织学习和接受新规范、放弃招募和使用儿童兵、保持行为克制。参与进程强调接触、对话和谈判,重视过程性因素。通过监测和报告机制、制度设计两大规范传播机制,武装组织在国际、国内和平进程中的参与实践有助于推动武装组织学习新规范,催生信任与合作意识,重新界定行动意义与利益,进而导致渐进式变化,保持行为克制。此外,武装组织的参与程度也影响其接受和遵守规范的程度。
     本文选取了冷战后布隆迪与乌干达境内的武装组织作为对比案例。布隆迪境内的武装组织主要是保卫民主全国委员会—保卫民主力量、胡图人解放党—民主解放力量。通过参与国际、国内进程,他们最后都放弃招募和使用儿童,释放了部队内的儿童兵,因此从“黑名单”中删除。与此形成鲜明对比的案例是乌干达上帝抵抗军。联合国仍未同上帝抵抗军进行直接接触与对话,而乌干达人民国防军的军事行动宣告朱巴和平进程失败。迄今,上帝抵抗军仍在招募和使用儿童兵,并犯有杀戮、残害、强奸等侵害儿童的罪行。上述案例表明,参与进程有助于说服武装组织放弃招募和使用儿童兵,选择社会性克制;在国际、国内和平进程的参与程度越高,武装组织越容易接受规范。
The key question is why some armed groups give up the recruitment and use ofchild soldiers, choose social restraints? The question comes from practical puzzles. Incontemporary civil wars and armed conflicts, children become the attack andrecruitment targets of armed groups. It is a rational and realistic choice for the armedgroups to recruit and use child soldiers. However, more and more armed groupschoose to give up the recruitment and use of child soldiers, keep social restraints.Military strikes, law deterrences and punishments, indirect political pressures andeconomic sanctions have some effects, but these measures could more easily stir upthe revolt and revenge of armed groups, who would recruit more child soldiers.
     The dissertation proposes a theoretical framework in which participative processis the key concept, to analyze the dynamic and process of armed groups’ socialrestraints. Participative process is that actors participate into, sustain and develop thedynamic relationship with social practices and social significances. Social restraintsmean that armed groups with ability and intention to recruit and use child soldiersgive up the recruitment and use of child soldiers, accept international humanitariannorms, and keep self restraints.
     The dissertation hypothesizes that participative process could help persuadearmed groups to learn and accept new norms, give up the recruitment and use of childsoldiers, and keep restraints. Participative process emphasizes engagement, dialogue,negotiation and process. Through norm transmission mechanisms, including monitorand report, institutional design, participative practices of armed grups in internationaland domestic peace process could promote armed groups to learn new norms,generate senses of trust and cooperation, redefine the meanings and interests, thenlead to gradual changes, and keep behavioral restraints. Furthermore, the degree ofarmed groups’ participation would affect the degree of acceptance and obedience.
     The dissertation chooses armed groups in Burundi and Uganda as comparativecases. CNDD-FDD and PALIPEHUTU-FNL are the main armed groups in Burundi.Through participating international and domestic process, they finally give up therecruitment and use of child soldiers, also release child soldiers. So, they are deletedfrom the “blacklist”. The comparative case is Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda.There are no direct engagement and contact between the United Nations and LRA,while UPDF’s military strike declares the failure of Juba Process. Now, LRA stillforcely recruits and uses child soldiers, and commits many crimes, such as killing,maiming and raping children. According to the cases, participative process could helppersuade the armed groups to give up the recruitment and use of child soldiers, choosesocial restraints; the higher participation in the international and domestic dimensions,the more likely to accept norm.
引文
①新战争的特征是:越来越多非国家行为体的参与、战斗呈非传统形式、轻小武器的非法扩散、恐怖主义国际化、袭击目标不区分战斗人员与平民。本文主要研究武装组织与国家政府之间的战争,不考虑恐怖组织等非国家行为与国家政府之间的战争。Edward Newman,“The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspectiveis Needed,” Security Dialogue, Vol.35, No.2,2004, pp.173-189; Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the NewWars: The Merging of Development and Security (London and New York: Zed Books,2001).
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    ③P. W. Singer, pp.19-21.
    ⑤a:招募和使用儿童兵的当事方;b:杀害和残害儿童的当事方;c:对儿童实施强奸及其他形式性暴力的当事方。《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/65/820-S/2011/250),第45-47页。
    ⑥《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/65/820-S/2011/250),第48页。
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    ④Amitav Acharya,“How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change inAsia Regionalism,” International Organization, Vol.58, No.2,2004, pp.239-275.
    ⑤Liesbet Hooghe,“Several Roads to International Norms, but Few via International Socialization: A Case of theEuropean Commission,” International Organization, Vol.59, No.4,2005, pp.861-898.
    ⑥林民旺,朱立群:《国际规范的国内化:国内结构的影响及传播机制》,第146页。
    ①Markus Kornprobst,“Argumentation and Compromise: Ireland’s Selection of the Territorial Status Quo Norm,”International Organization, Vol.61, No.1,2007, pp.69-98.
    ②Ryder Mckeowm,“Norm Regress: US Revisionism and the Slow Death of the Torture Norm,” InternationalRelations, vol.23, No.1,2009, pp.5-25.
    ③Ryder Mckeowm,“Norm Regress: US Revisionism and the Slow Death of the Torture Norm”, pp.10-12.
    ④有关国际规范研究议程的文献综述可参考:黄超:《说服战略与国际规范传播》,载《世界经济与政治》2010年第9期,第72-87页;柳思思:《从规范进化到规范退化》,载《当代亚太》2010年第3期,第145-160页。
    ①[美]迈克尔·巴尼特和马莎·芬尼莫尔:《为世界定规则——全球政治中的国际组织》(薄燕译),上海人民出版社,2009年版。
    ②Alexandra Gheciu,“Security Institutions as Agents of Socialization? NATO and the ‘New Europe’,” pp.994-997.
    ③P. W. Singer, p.53.
    ①秦亚青教授批评了结构现实主义忽视过程,新自由制度主义和温特结构建构主义将进程视为一种背景、一种场所或是一个舞台。这对本文分析参与进程有着重要的启发意义。参见:秦亚青:《关系本位与过程建构:将中国理念植入国际关系理论》,载《中国社会科学》2009年第3期,第69-86页。
    ②朱立群:《中国参与国际体系的实践解释模式》,载《外交评论》2011年第1期,第24-27页。
    ①秦亚青:《关系本位与过程建构:将中国理念植入国际关系理论》,载《中国社会科学》2009年第3期,第74-80页。尽管过程建构主义研究的核心对象是国家行为体,但是其他行为体也可以包含在这个理论模式之中,比如武装组织等非国家行为体。这些非国家行为体在国际社会中的作用和影响越来越大,同国际组织、国家政府以及其他非国家行为体,通过接触和互动关系产生了社会意义,进而影响了武装组织的行为。
    ①关于人道主义干预概念及其发展历程的详细阐述参见:[美]玛莎·芬尼莫尔:《干涉的目的:武力使用信念的变化》(袁正清,李欣译),上海世纪出版集团,2009年版;魏宗雷等:《西方“人道主义干预”理论与实践》,北京:时事出版社,2001年版;李开盛:《美好世界原理——世界政治中人的利益及其实现问题研究》,中国社会科学院研究生院博士学位论文,2008年4月,第125-133页。
    ②Neil J. Mitchell, Agents of Atrocity: Leaders, Followers, and the Violation of Human Rights in Civil War (NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan,2004); Christopher Cramer, Civil War is not a Stupid Thing: Accounting for Violence inDeveloping Countries (London: Hurst&Company,2006).
    ③Nicholas J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Interventional Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2000), p.1.
    ④杨成绪:《新挑战——国际关系中的“人道主义干预”》,北京:中国青年出版社,2001年版,第212-213页。
    ①李开盛:《美好世界原理——世界政治中人的利益及其实现问题研究》,第127页。
    ②魏宗雷等:《西方“人道主义干预”理论与实践》,北京:时事出版社,2003年,第17页。
    ③玛莎·芬尼莫尔:《干涉的目的:武力使用信念的变化》,第54-80页。
    ④John Stremlau,“Ending Africa’s Wars,” Foreign Affairs, July/August,2000, p.117.
    ①安德鲁·克拉帕姆:《武装冲突中非国家行为体的人权保护义务》,第276页。
    ②Theodor Meron, Human Rights in Internal Strife: Their International Protection (Grotius, Cambridge,1987), p.39.
    ③Emmanuel Roucounas,“Non-State Actors: Areas of International Responsibility in Need of FurtherExploration,” International Responsibility Today: Essays in Memory of Oscar Schachter, ed. Maurizio Ragazzi(Marshall Cavendish Corporation,2005), pp.391-404, esp. p.397; Liesbeth Zegveld, Accountability of ArmedOpposition Groups in International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2002), pp.49-51; LyndsayMoir, The Law of Internal Armed Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2002); Pieter H. Kooijmans,“The Security Council and Non-State Entities as Parties to Conflicts,” International Law: Theory and Practice, ed.Karel Wellens (Hague: Martinus Nijhoff,1998), pp.333-346; Theodor Meron, Human Rights and HumanitarianNorms as Customary Law (Clarendon, Oxford,1989); Theodor Meron, Human Rights in Internal Strife: TheirInternational Protection (Grotius, Cambridge,1987); Yves C. Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and BrunoZimmerman, eds., Commentary on the Additional Protocols of8June1977to the Geneva Conventions of12August1949(Geneva/Dordrecht: ICRC/Nijhoff,1987).
    ①安德鲁·克拉帕姆:《武装冲突中非国家行为体的人权保护义务》,第283页。
    ②安德鲁·克拉帕姆:《武装冲突中非国家行为体的人权保护义务》,第296-297页。
    ①Michael J. Smith,“Humanitarian Intervention: An Overview of the Ethical Issues,” Ethics&InternationalAffairs: A Reader, ed. Joel H. Rosenthal (Washington: Georgetown University Press,1999)2ndEdition, p.289.
    ②安德鲁·克拉帕姆:《武装冲突中非国家行为体的人权保护义务》,第283-284页。
    ②《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742-S/2010/181),第38页。
    ①《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742-S/2010/181),第39页。
    ②《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742-S/2010/181),第38页。
    ①James D. D. Smith, Stopping Wars: Defining the Obstacles to Cease-fire (Boulder: Westview Press,1995), p.266.
    ②Paul R. Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress,1983), p.24.
    ③有关国内武装冲突和平解决的可能性与现实性的研究分析与文献梳理,参见:胡文秀:《论冷战后国内武装冲突和平解决的影响因素》,中国社会科学院研究生院博士学位论文,2011年,第28页;Peter Wallensteen,Understanding Conflict Resolution: War, Peace and the Global System (London: Sage Publication Ltd.,2007)2ndEdition, p.28.
    ①胡文秀:《论冷战后国内武装冲突和平解决的影响因素》,第28页。
    ③《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/59/695-S/2005/72),第12-26页。
    ①联合国安全理事会第1612(2005)号决议,第3段。
    ①《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/59/695-S/2005/72),第26页。
    ①《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长特别代表的报告》(A/66/256),第3页。
    ②《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长特别代表的报告》(A/62/228),第31页。
    ①David Keen,“Incentives and Disincentives for Violence,” p.39.
    ①《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长特别代表的报告》(A/62/228),第20-21页。
    ①本文主要研究是布隆迪1993年内战,有关1965年、1972年、1988年内战的资料参见:于红,吴增田:《卢旺达、布隆迪》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2011年版;Benjamin Mokoena, The Political Economy ofBurundi: a History of Conflict and Peace (Verlag: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing,2010); Jean-Pierre Chrétien,“The Rrcurrence of Violence in Burundi: Memories of the ‘Catastrophe’ of1972,” The Recurring Great LakesCrisis: Identity, Violence and Power, eds. Jean-Pierre Chrétien and Richard Banégas (London: Hurst&CompanyLtd.,2008), pp.26-60; Patricia O. Daley,Gender&Genocide in Burundi: the Search for Spaces of Peace in theGreat Lakes (Oxford: James Currey,2008), pp.61-78; René Lemarchand,“Burundi at a Crossroads,” SecurityDynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes Region, ed. Gilbert M. Khadiagala (Boulder&London: Lynne RiennerPublishers,2006), pp.41-58.
    ①Filip Reyntjens,“The Proof of the Pudding is in the Eating: the June1993Elections in Burundi,” the Journal ofModern African Studies, Vol.31, No.4,1993, p.564.
    ③K. A. Bentley and R. Southall, An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa and Burundi (Cape Town:Human Sciences Research Council,2005), p.46; J. P. Chrétien, p.208; Filip Reyntjens,“Burundi: Breaking theCycle of Violence,” Minority Rights Group International, London,1995, p.12; Filip Reyntjens,“Burundi:Prospects for Peace,” Minority Rights Group International,2000, p.12,www.minorityrights.org/admin/Downlad/Pdf/BURUNDI12.PDF.(上网时间:2011年8月10日)
    ①Filip Reyntjens, p.13.
    ①Patricia O. Daley, p.85.
    ②J. S. Oketch and T. Polzer,“Conflict and Coffee in Burundi,” Scarcity and Surfeit: the Ecology of Africa’sConflicts, eds. J. Lind and K. Sturman (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studiers,2002), p.101; K. A. Bentley and R.Southall, p.56.
    ③L. Wohgelmuth,“NGO’s and Conflict Prevention in Burundi,” the Collaborative for Development Action,Reflecting on Peace Practice Project (RPP) Case Study,2000, p.4,www.cdainc.com/rpp/pubications/casestudies/Case14Burundi.pdf; R. P. Herisse,“Development on a Theatre:Democary, Governmence and the Political Conflict in Burundi,” Peace, Conflict and Development, Vol.1, No.1,June2002, pp.3-4, www.peacestudiesjournal.org.uk/docs/Burundi.pdf.(上网时间:2011年6月20日)
    ①R. Cornwell and H. De Beer,“Africa Watch Burundi: the Politics of Intolerance,” African Security Review, Vol.8, No.6,1999, p.84; Filip Reyntjens, p.5.
    ②Janvier D. Nkurunziza and F. Ngaruko,“Why has Burundi Grown so Slowly?” Weatherhead Centre forInternational Affairs (Harvard University,2005), p.1,www.wcfia.havard.edu/conferences/batesafrica/PapersPDF/Nkurunziza.pdf.(上网时间:2011年7月20日)
    ③René Lemarchand,“Ethnicity as Myth: the View from Central Africa,” Centre of African Studies, OccasionalPaper (University of Copenhagen,1999), p.10, www.teol.ku.dk/cas.(上网时间:2011年7月20日)
    ④Filip Reyntjens, p.5.
    ⑤René Lemarchand,“The Crisis in the Great Lakes,” Africa in World Politics: the African State Symtem in Flux,eds. J. W. Harbeson and D. Rothchild (Boulder: Westview Press,2000)3rdEdition, p.326.
    ⑥René Lemarchand,“Exclusion, Marginalisation and Political Mobilisation: the Road to Hell in the GreatLakes,” Centre of African Studies, Occasional Paper (University of Copenhagen,2000), pp.5-6,www.teol.ku.dk/cas.(上网时间:2011年12月5日)
    ⑦J. S. Oketch and T. Polzer, p.106.
    ①Benjamin Mokoena, pp.43-44.
    ②International Crisis Group,“Burundi’s Peace Process: the Road from Arusha,” African Briefing N°2(Nairobi/Brussels: ICG),20July1998, p.19, www.129.194.252.80/catfiles/0529.pdf.(上网时间:2011年8月3日)
    ③International Crisis Group,“A Framework for Responsible Aid to Burundi,” African Briefing N°57(Nairobi/Brussels: ICG),21February,2003, p.4,www.crisisweb.org/library/documents/report_archievel/A400901_21022003.pdf.(上网时间:2011年8月3日)
    ④J. Van Eck,“Burundi Report: Relative Success of Transitional Government Essential for the Next Phase of theBurundi Peace Process,” Centre for International Political Studies, No.2,2001, p.8,www.nilebasin.com/documents/burundireport.html.(上网时间:2011年8月3日)
    ⑤P. Uvin,“Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence,” Comparative Politics,Vol.31, Issue.3, April,1999, p.262.
    ⑥Alexandre Hatungimana,“Political Crisis and Social Reconfigurations: the ‘Disaster Victims’ in Burundi,” TheRecurring Great Lakes Crisis: Identity, Violence and Power, eds. Jean-Pierre Chrétien and Richard Banégas(London: Hurst&Company Ltd.,2008), p.136.
    ①Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Global Report on Child Soldiers,2001, p.94,http://www.child-soldiers.org/library/global-reports?root_id=159&directory_id=165.(上网时间:2011年6月2日)
    ②Ibid., p.91.
    ③Amnesty International, Burundi: Targeting Students, Teachers and Clerics in the Fight for Supremacy (London:Amnesty International, September1995), p.2, web.amnesty.org.(上网时间:2011年6月2日)
    ④《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/55/163-S/2000/712),第9页。
    ⑤Alexandre Hatungimana,“Political Crisis and Social Reconfigurations: the ‘Disaster Victims’ in Burundi,” TheRecurring Great Lakes Crisis: Identity, Violence and Power, eds. Jean-Pierre Chrétien and Richard Banégas(London: Hurst&Company Ltd.,2008), p.162.
    ①International Crisis Group,“Burundi: Neither War Nor Peace,” Africa Report N°25(Nairobi/Brussels: ICG),1December2000, p.7,www.crisisweb.org/library/documents/report_archieve/A40026_01122000.pdf(上网时间:2012年8月13日);P. Uvin, p.262; J. P. Chrétien,“Burundi: the Obsession with Genocide,” Current History, May,1996, p.210.
    ②Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: the CNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” Forum on ArmedGroups and the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers(Switzerland: Chateau de Bossey),4to7July2006, p.3.
    ③Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: the CNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” p.4.
    ④追随者的数量不固定,随着保卫民主力量的财力和资源的变化而浮动。Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: theCNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” p.4.
    ⑤Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: the CNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” p.4.
    ①Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: the CNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” p.4.
    ②Amnesty International, Burundi: Child soldiers-the challenge of demobilization (AI Index: AFR16/011/2004),24March2004.
    ③Ibid.
    ②Alison Dilworth,“Burundi: the CNDD-FDD (Nkurunziza) and the Use of Child Soldiers,” p.5.
    ③Human Rights Watch, Burundi: Neglecting Justice in Making Peace,23March2000.
    ②International Crisis Group,“The Burundi Rebellion and the Ceasefire Negotiations”, p.5.
    ②《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742–S/2010/181),第5页。
    ③《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742–S/2010/181),第13页。
    ①Ibid.
    ②1996年5月到6月,皮埃卡布约亚在美国。Filip Reyntjens, pp.15-16; L. Ndikumana,“Towards a Solutionto Violence in Burundi: a Case for Political and Economic Liberalization,” the Journal of Modern African Studies,Vol.38, No.3,2000, p.457.
    ③Patricia O. Daley, Gender&Genocide in Burundi: the Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region(Oxford: James Currey,2008), p.87.
    ①International Crisis Group,“Burundi’s Peace Process: the Road from Arusha”, p.2; Patricia O. Daley, p.212.
    ②Patricia O. Daley, p.202.
    ①Benjamin Mokoena, p.96.
    ②Patricia O. Daley, p.214.
    ③International Crisis Group,“Burundi: Neither War Nor Peace”, pp.2-3.
    ④Filip Reyntjens,“Again at the Crossroads-Rwanda and Burundi,2000-2001,” the Nordic Africa Institute,Current Africa, Issue No.24,2001, p.18, www.130.238.24.99/webbshop/epubl/cai/cai024.pdf.(上网时间:2010年11月2日)
    ①J. Van Eck, p.2; N. Alusala,“Disarmament and the Transition in Burundi: How Soon?” Institute for SecurityStudies, Occasional Paper97, January2005, p.1, www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/97/Paper97.htm.(上网时间:2010年11月3日)
    ②Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement on Burundi,28August2000, pp.16-17,www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Burundi/arusha/pdf.(上网时间:2011年3月23日)
    ①C. King,“Ending Civil Wars,” International Institute for Strategic Studies, Adelphi Paper308(New York:Oxford University Press,1997), pp.40-42.
    ③Patricia O. Daley, pp.223-224.
    ①Human Rights Watch, A Long Way from Home: FNL Child Soldiers in Burundi, June2006, No.3, p.4.
    ②Human Rights Watch, A Long Way from Home: FNL Child Soldiers in Burundi, pp.4-5.
    ④Human Rights Watch, A Long Way from Home: FNL Child Soldiers in Burundi, pp.6-7.
    ③《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/63/785-S/2009/158),第4-5页。
    ①《秘书长关于布隆迪境内儿童与武装冲突问题的报告》(S/2009/450),第2页。
    ③《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742–S/2010/181),第10页。
    ②Adam Branch,“Exploring the Roots of LRA Violence: Political Crisis and Ethnic Politics in Acholiland,” TheLord’s Resistance Army: Myth and Reality, eds. Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot (London&New York: ZedBooks,2010), pp.25-27.
    ②Kristof Titeca,“The Spiritual Order of the LRA”, in Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot, eds., The Lord’sResistance Army: Myth and Reality, London&New York: Zed Books,2010, pp.59-73.
    ③Anthony Vinci,“Beyond Terror and Insurgency: the LRA’s Dirty War in Northern Uganda”, Warrior’sDishonour: Barbarity, Morality and Torture in Modern Warfare, ed., Georger Kassimeris (Hampshire&Burlington: Ashgete,2006), pp.87-98; Anthony Vinci, Armed Groups and the Balance of Power: the InternationalRelations of Terrorists, Warlords and Insurgents, pp.90-92,152.
    ⑦《1996—2000年马谢尔审查:关于加强保护受战争影响的儿童方面取得的进展和遇到的障碍的严谨分析》(A/55/749),第22页。
    ①Sandrine Perrot,“Northern Uganda: a ‘Forgotten Conflict’ Again? The Impact of the Internationalization of theResolution Process,” The Lord’s Resistance Army: Myth and Reality, eds. Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot(London&New York: Zed Books),2010, p.191.
    ④Sandrine Perrot,“Northern Uganda: a ‘Forgotten Conflict’ Again? The Impact of the Internationalization of theResolution Process,” pp.188-191.
    ③《秘书长关于乌干达境内儿童与武装冲突问题的报告》(S/2007/260),第9-10页。
    ②《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长特别代表的报告》(A/66/256),第9页。
    ③《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/64/742-S/2010/181),第35页。
    ④《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/65/820-S/2011/250),第39页。
    ①儿童与武装冲突问题工作组:《关于乌干达境内儿童与武装冲突问题的结论》(S/AC.51/2010/1),第2-3页。
    ②Lamwaka,“The Peace Progress in Northern Uganda,1986-1990,” Protracted Conflict, Elusive Peace:Initiatives to End the War in Northern Uganda, ed. L. Okello (London: Conciliation Resources in Collaborationwith Kacoke Madit,2002), p.31.
    ③Heike Behren, Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirits: War in Northern Uganda1986-1997(Oxford, Kampala,Nairobi and Athens: James Currey/Fountain Publishers/EAEP/Ohio University Press,1999), pp.173-174.
    ①Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” The Lord’s Resistance Army:Myth and Reality, eds. Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot (London&New York: Zed Books,2010), p.205.
    ②R. Doom and K. Vlassenroot,“Kony’s Message: A New Koine? The Lord’s Resistance Army in NorthernUganda,” African Affairs, Vol.98, No.390,1999, pp.5-37.
    ②Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” p.310.
    ①T. Allen and J. Seaton,“Introduction,” The Media of Conflict: War Reporting and Representations of EthnicViolence, eds. T. Allen and J. Seaton (London and New York: Zed Books,1999), p.3.
    ②“Only One Solution to ADF War,” New Vision,23January2000; Prunier,“Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare:Uganda, Sudan and the Congo1986-1999,” African Affairs,2004, p.359.
    ①《儿童与武装冲突:秘书长的报告》(A/61/529–S/2006/826),第23页。
    ②Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” pp.210-211.
    ③Ibid., p.210.
    ①Sandrine Perrot,“Northern Uganda: a ‘Forgotten Conflict’ Again? The Impact of the Internationalization of theResolution Process,” p.196.
    ②“Museveni Rules Out Talks with LRA,” New Vision,4May2006.
    ③南苏丹独立后,里克·马沙尔(Riek Machar)成为副总统。
    ④Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” p.212-213.
    ⑤Ibid., p.213.
    ①“Government will not Talk to Kony,” New Vision,14June2006;“Museveni Wants to Hunt LRA in Congo,”New Vision,19June2006.
    ②有关非政府组织为推动朱巴会谈而开展工作,参见:Simon Simonse, Willemijn Verkoren and Gerd Junne,“NGO Involvement in the Juba Peace Talks: the Role and Dilemmas of IKV Pax Christi,” The Lord’s ResistanceArmy: Myth and Reality, eds. Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot (London&New York: Zed Books,2010), pp.223-241.
    ③“Rugnda Heads to Juba,” New Vision,28June2006;“President now Sends Team to Juba,” Monitor,29June2006.
    ④“LRA Talks Begin in Juba,” New Vision,15July2006; Sverker Finnstr m and Ronald R. Atkinson,“Uganda’sMoment for Peace,” International Herald Tribune,10August2006.
    ①《秘书长关于乌干达境内儿童与武装冲突问题的报告》(S/2007/260),第4页。
    ②“Al-Bashir Wants Uganda Rebels out of Sudan,” Sudan Tribune,11January2007.
    ③Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” p.215.
    ①“LRA Refuse to Renew Ceasefire Agreement,” Monitor,23February2007.
    ①“Govt., LRA Sign Second Agreement,” Monitor,3May2007;“Govt., LRA Rebels Sign New Pact,” SundayVision,6May2007.
    ④《秘书长关于乌干达儿童与武装冲突问题的补充报告》(S/2008/409),第3页。
    ①Ronald R. Atkinson,“‘The Realists in Juba’? An Analysis of the Juba Peace Talks,” p.220.
    ②Ibid.
    ①Chris Dolan, Social Torture: the Case of Northern Uganda1986-2006(New York&Oxford: Berghahn Books,2009), pp.86-106.
    ②Sandrine Perrot,“Northern Uganda: a ‘Forgotten Conflict’ Again? The Impact of the Internationalization of theResolution Process,” p.200.
    ③《负责儿童与武装冲突问题的秘书长特别代表2007年的报告》(A/62/228),第19页。
    ④International Crisis Group,“Northern Uganda: The Road to Peace, with or without Kony”, Africa Report N°146(Nairobi/Brussels: ICG),10December2008, pp. i-ii,
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    监察名单/儿童和武装冲突:http://watchlist.org/
    战争中的儿童:http://www.childreninwar.com/
    艾塞克斯大学——儿童与武装冲突:http://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/
    欧洲儿童事务监察员网:http://www.crin.org/enoc/
    国际红十字委员会:http://www.icrc.org/
    中国外交部网站:http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/pds/gjhdq/
    国际危机集团:http://www.crisisgroup.org/