摘要
在语言学习中,频次作用(frequency effect)被认为起着无可替代的重要作用。N.Ellis指出,频次作用涉及语言加工和学习的各个方面,随着频次的增加,同时出现的语言单位之间的联系不断被加强和积累,因此易于习得。但是二语习得领域许多专家并不支持频次的核心作用,他们认为二语习得受到许多其他因素影响。N.Ellis认为(2002)显性指导(explicit instruction)的作用不可忽视。以上观点说明了频次作用的争议性,近年来,虽然已有学者开展关于频次作用的实证研究,但是涉及二语语音习得研究相对较少。鉴于此,本研究选取中国学生习得英语重音模式为研究对象,旨在探究频次作用和显性指导在学生聆听模仿本族语者对话过程中重音模式的变化规律。
重音是英语最显著的超音段语音特征之一,也是传递话语信息的重要表现形式。重读就是韵律突显；一个语调单位常常包含几个重读音节：调核重音和其他非调核重读音节。所有重读音节和调核一起构成信息链。错误或者不恰当的重音模式将导致交际误解以致失败,重音模式的习得对二语语音习得至关重要。
目前为止,二语语音习得研究中超音段特征研究仍然不足。关于中国英语学习者的超音段学习研究,陈桦(2005)比较了学习者朗读口语中容易引起本族语者误解和导致信息传递失败的二语语调特点。毕冉(2009)研究了英语专业学生朗读任务中重音分布的发展规律。但目前为止,大多数研究仍以描述重音模式为主,尚未就语音训练对英语学习者的重音模式所能产生的影响展开深入研究。
中国英语学习者的重音模式问题在于学习者话语中重读音节过多,学习者不能恰当地表现重读和非重读音节对比。纵贯研究结果表明,在四年的大学学习中,重音问题不但没有得到改善,反而呈现一定程度的上升趋势,由重音模式所反映的节奏模式,在四年期间也没有明显变化,学习者的话语体现非常明显的音节节拍语言特点。
前人研究存在几点不足。首先,各种研究主要限于对于二语学习者重音模式特点的描述。其次,除少数研究外,前人研究较多集中于调核重音,对一个语调单位内其他重读音节的关注不足。同时,仍然缺乏对语调单位层面突显程度不同的音节对比研究。再次,在研究体现重音的声学参数时,前人研究只集中在单个参数上,而没有统一考虑音高、时长和音强三个参数。国外的大多数研究依靠计算机软件或者声学试验仪器对学习者的口语材料进行分析,而国内二语语音习得研究使用软件手段刚刚起步,有待进一步深入。
英语重音教学一直在国内语音教学中所占地位不高,传统上教师主要通过学生反复聆听本族语者的范例,再加以模仿来学习英语重音。近年来有人提出采用明示教学法可视化手段等,但是这些教学手段的效果有待进一步验证。
本论文对中国英语学习者重音模式的习得过程进行实证研究,探究两种方式对重音模式产出的影响：频次作用和频次作用加上显性指导,具体定义为反复聆听模仿和反复聆听模仿加上教师指导。本研究围绕以下问题：反复聆听模仿和反复聆听模仿加上教师指导对中国英语学习者朗读口语中的重音模式有什么影响?具体来说,(1)对学习者不同句型中的句子重读音节分布有什么影响?(2)对学习者区分句子中不同突显度的音节有何影响?(3)对学习者朗读口语中的节奏特征有何影响?
研究对象是12名英语专业一年级学生,这些学习者全都来自南京一所大学英语系,英语口语水平初级。
本研究共分两个阶段,在第一阶段,受试者在训练前依次朗读四个对话,对话包含不同句型和不同长度的语调单位,受试者通过反复聆听模仿朗读对话三次。在第二阶段,6名受试者分为两组,一组的训练方式和第一阶段相同。另一组加上教师指导,两组受试者朗读本族语者的对话一次。研究者对收集的录音样本利用语音标注及分析软件Praat进行标注,根据分析结果,主要有以下研究发现：
首先,本研究结果表明反复聆听模仿这种练习方式对二语学习者产出英语重音模式有一定的影响,但影响有限。练习前学习者没有考虑词语的信息承载状况,口语中重读音节过多。名词、系动词“be”和功能词的重音分布率高出本族语者,练习后这种状况没有得到明显改善。练习后学习者朗读口语中的调核重音分布的准确率有一定提高,无标记调核的准确率提高快于标记性调核。不同句型的句子的调核重音分布在练习后有所变化,一般陈述句、复合句和特殊疑问句的重音分布正确率要高于其他句型。
反复聆听模仿能够在一定程度上帮助学习者从时长特征上区分重读和非重读音节但不能区分调核音节和非调核重读音节。反复聆听模仿不能有效帮助学习者从音高特征上区分调核音节和非调核重读音节以及重读和非重读音节。反复聆听模仿不能对学习者的重音间隔之间的等时性特征产生任何明显的改进作用。反复聆听模仿练习能在有限程度上改善学习者的朗读口语中的节奏特征,比如元音变异度的指数能够得到改善,而对辅音变异度的影响不大。本研究结果同时表明,即使继续增加聆听和模仿的频次,重音模式的各项指数也未能得到有效改善。
其次,反复聆听模仿加上教师指导比单独的反复聆听模仿能帮助学习者提高重读音节的分布准确率。各种句型的重音分布准确率比第一阶段都有进步,学习者调核重音和非调核重音的准确率比第一阶段有明显提高,调核重音和非调核重音,重读音节和非重读音节的时长比和音高之比,与第一阶段相比,有接近本族语者的趋势。反复聆听模仿加上教师指导能够帮助学习者学习重读和非重读音节的产出,同样,这种练习方式能帮助学习者在节奏特征上取得进步,学习者的重音间隔之间的等时性特征有接近本族语者的趋势,学习者不仅在元音时长与整个语调单位时长之比以及成对元音的变异指数上取得进步,而且辅音标准误和成对辅音变异度的得分也得到改善。
本论文的研究成果在理论上和实践上的意义丰富。理论上揭示了频次作用对二语语音习得的作用和影响,研究结果证明频次作用对二语语音学习具有一定效果,但不能起到决定性作用,显性指导能引导学习者注意目标语特征。本研究结果支持“注意力假设”,即“注意”是第二语言习得的必要因素,学习者反复接触目标语结构能促使他们注意到语言形式,能注意到自身语言产出和目标语的差距。频次作用加上显性指导能够加快学习者学习英语重音模式的进程。在教学实践上,本研究表明反复聆听模仿仍不失为一种有效的学习语音的方式,值得语言教师和学习者的重视,同时表明二语语音习得中,教师指导是不可替代的。
Both frequency and explicit instruction are believed to play important roles in the language learning classroom. Although some research has been conducted on their effects on the oral English learning, not enough empirical studies have been conducted on the learning of suprasegmental features. This dissertation reported a study that explored the effects of frequency effects and the effect of explicit instruction on EFL learners' production of English stress patterns.
Stress is a property of syllables that makes them stand out as more prominent than others. In one tone group, there is almost always a peak of stress called "tonic stress" or "nucleus." Nuclear stress is normally found in a content word in utterance-final position. It can also be found in other positions. Stresses other than tonic stress are called non-nuclear stresses. The rest of the syllables are unstressed syllables. The different distributions of stress directly affect the rhythmic features of English.
It is believed by many that misuse or inappropriate use of stress patterns can lead to problems in understanding. The learning of appropriate stress patterns, therefore, seems essential before a second language learner can have successful communication with native speakers. Chinese EFL speakers are often described as producing less differentiation between stressed and unstressed syllables and stressing more syllables than do native speakers. Previous studies on the learning of English stress patterns by Chinese EFL learners have involved descriptive analysis of learners' speech patterns. Chen (2005) has studied the nuclear stress placement by Chinese EFL learners and Bi (2009) has examined the development of stress patterns of some Chinese EFL learners. Yet they have not touched upon the effect of explicit instruction on the learning of stress patterns. More studies are needed to enrich our understanding of the process of learning English suprasegmental features.
The present study explored the frequency effects and explicit instruction on12first-year English majors' command of stress patterns within a tone group. The treatment materials consisted of quasi-spontaneous dialogues between native speakers. The imitations of learners were examined for stress placement, the contrast between syllables of different prominence levels and the rhythmic features. The participants received treatment at two stages. At Stage One, they listened to and imitated the native model dialogues for different times. At Stage Two, in addition to repeated listening and imitation, they also received teacher instruction on the necessary information on English stress patterns. Recorded data were analyzed acoustically. An analysis of the recordings revealed the following findings:
1. Repeated listening and imitation is found to have affected the participants'stress patterns in various ways. Before such treatment, there was an overuse of stress on syllables regardless of their information status. The treatment produced some limited effect on the stress patterns, but it had almost no effect on the problem of placing stress on copula "be" and some of the function words. The treatment can only help learners improve the correctness rates of the placement of unmarked nuclei but not those of the placement of marked nuclei. Although there was some improvement made in the non-nuclear placement, the improvement was not seen on all the sentences.
With regard to the contrast between nuclear and non-nuclear stresses, the treatment may have helped the learners make negligible progress in the pitch ratio and limited progress in the duration ratios of nuclear to non-nuclear stressed syllables.
As for the contrast between the stressed and unstressed syllables, the treatment seemed to help them make improvement in the mean duration ratios but failed to help them make improvement in the mean pitch ratios of stressed to unstressed syllables.
Repeated listening and imitation does not have any effect on the duration of inter-stress intervals (ISIs). With continued treatment, no progress could be observed in terms of inter-stress intervals.
The treatment produced some improvements in the proportion of vocalic intervals (%V) and variability of vocalic intervals (nPVI). Some limited progress was also made in consonantal variability (AC).
2. Repeated listening and imitation accompanied by teacher instruction can improve the correctness rates of the stress placement. It can improve the stress placement for sentences of various lengths. It can enhance the participant's consciousness of the stressed and unstressed syllables. The instruction pushes learners to pay attention to the way native speakers stress words and reduce stress on those words that are not supposed to be emphasized.
Teacher instruction can help learners make noticeable improvement in the mean syllable durations. As a result, the duration ratios of nuclear to non-nuclear stressed syllables and stressed to unstressed syllables can get closer to those of the native speaker.
Teacher instruction can lead to greater improvement in pitch ratios than mere listening and imitation. The pitch ratio of the nuclear to non-nuclear stressed syllables and the ratio of stressed to unstressed syllables were both raised and thus closer to those in the speech of native speakers.
Repeated listening and imitation accompanied by teacher instruction appears advantageous over mere listening and imitation in helping learners make progress in inter-stress intervals. Before receiving teacher instruction, almost all the durations of ISIs were longer than those of native speakers. After the instruction, the participants often produced shorter ISIs. In contrast, for those who continued to listen and imitate without teacher instruction, there was only limited improvement.
Repeated listening and imitation accompanied by teacher instruction seems more useful in helping learners make progress in the four indices of rhythmic features than mere listening and imitation.
The findings of the present study have rich theoretical and pedagogical implications. Theoretically, the present study implies that frequency has limited effects on L2speech learning, but it is explicit instruction that directs learners'attention to the target forms and enables them to make progress. Therefore the findings give support to the noticing hypothesis. The repeated experiences with target structure afford learners opportunity to pay attention to language form and notice the gap between one's language production and the target form. Pedagogically, the practice of repeated listening and imitation can be widely implemented in the EFL classroom. Teacher instruction can better help learners make improvements in the production of English stress patterns. It also implies that much practice cannot replace teacher instruction.
引文
Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of general phonetics. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Adams, C. (1979). English speech rhythm and the foreign learner. The Hague: Mouton.
Adams, C. & Munro, R.R. (1978). In search of the acoustic correlates of stress: Fundamental frequency, amplitude, and duration in the connected utterance of some native and non-native speakers. Phonetica,35,125-156
Aliaga-Garc(?) C. (2007). The role of phonetic training in L2 speech learning. Proceedings of the phonetics teaching and learning conference. Barcelona, Spain.
Allen, G.D.(1975). Speech rhythm:Its relation to performance universals and articulatory timing. Journal of Phonetics,3,75-86.
Anderson-Hsieh, J. & Venkatagiri, H. (1994). Syllable duration and pausing in the speech of Chinese ESL speakers. TESOL QUARTERLY,,28 (4),807-812.
Anderson-Hsieh, J., Johnson, R., & Koehler, K. (1992). The relationship between native speaker judgments of normative pronunciation and deviance in segmentals, prosody, and syllable structure. Language Learning,42(4),529-555
Anderson, J.R. (1993). The architecture of Cognition. Cambridge. MA:Harvard University Press.
Andrews, K.L.Z. (2007).The Effects of Implicit and Explicit Instruction on Simple and Complex Grammatical Structures for Adult English Language Learners. TESL-EJ:Volume 11, Number 2
Baddeley, A. D., Thomson, N., & Buchanan, M. (1975). Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,14, 575-589.
Ball, M.J. & Rahilly, J. (1999). Phonetics:The science of speech. London:Arnold.
Bailey, T. M., Plunkett, K., & Scarpa, E. (1999). A cross-linguistic study in learning prosodic rhythms:Rules, constraints, and similarity. Language and Speech,42, 1-38.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1986). Pragmatic determinant of sentence stress. Indiana University Press
Bi,R.[毕冉],2009,英语专业学生朗读任务中重音分布的发展规律研究,西安外语大学学报2009年第2期：97-100页。
Bley-Vroman, R. (2002). Frequency in production, comprehension, and acquisition, Studies in Second Language Acquisition,24,209-213
Boersma, P., Weenink, D.,2004. PRAAT version 4.2.05. Available from: .
Bolinger, D. (1958). A theory of pitch accent in English. Word,14,109-149
Bolinger, D. (1968). Aspects of language. New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Bolinger, D. (1972). "Accent is Predictable (if You're a Mind-Reader)", Language, 48(3),633-644.
Bolinger, D. (1986). Intonation and its Parts. Palo Alto:Stanford University Press.
Bolinger, D. (1989). Intonation and its uses:Melody in grammar and discourse. Standford:Standford University Press
Bond, Z.S. & Fokes, J. (1985). Non-native patterns of English syllable timing. Journal of Phonetics,13,407-42
Bradlow, A. R., Pisoni, D. B., Akahane-Yamada, R., & Tohkura, Y. (1997). Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and/Ⅰ/:Ⅳ. Some effects of perceptual learning on speech production. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,101, 2299-2310. Breitkreutz, J. A.,
Bradlow, et al (1999). Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/&/l/: Long-term retention of learning in perception and production. Perception and Psychophysics,61,5,977-985.
Brazil, D. (1992). Listening to people reading. In:Coulthard, M. (Ed.), Advances in Spoken Discourse Analysis. Routledge, London, pp.209-241.
Brazil, D. (1985). The Communicative Value of Intonation in English. Cambridge University Press, Originally published in 1985 by University of Birmingham: English Language Research, England.
Brazil, D., Coulthard, M., & Johns, C., (1980). Discourse Intonation and Language Teaching. Longman, London.
Brown, G., Currie, K., & Kenworthy, J., (1980). Questions of Intonation. Croom-Helm, London.
Bu, Y. H.[卜友红],2003,英语语调的结构、功能和应用.北京：外语教育和研究出版社。
Bygate,M. (1996)
Carr, P. (1999). English phonetics and phonology. Oxford:Blackwell.
Cauldwell, R. (2001). Streaming Speech. Speech in Action, UK.
Celik, M. (2004). Teaching English intonation to EFL/ESL students, from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Celik-Into nation.html
Cenoz & Lecumberri. (1999). Learners'views on the acquisition of an L2 phonetic system. International Journal of Applied Linguistics.9,1, pp.3-15
Chaudron, C. (in preparation) Elicited imitation:second language & first language applications. University of Hawaii Department of ESL.
Chela Flores, B. (1993). On the acquisition of English rhythm:Theoretical and practical issues. Lenguas Modernes,20,151-164.
Chela de Florez, B. (2001). Pronunciation and language learning:An integrative approach. IRAL,39,85-101.
Chen, H[陈桦],2005,英语专业学生口语中的否定表达的韵律特征——一项基于SECCL的研究.解放军外国语学院学报：(3)：46-50。
Chen, H[陈桦],2006a,中国学生朗读口语中的英语调型特点研究。现代外语：(4)：418-425。
Chen, H[陈桦],2006b,中国学生朗读口语中的调群切分模式研究,外语教学与研究：(5)：272-278。
Chen, H[陈桦],2006c,英语学习者朗读口语中的调核位置,《解放军外国语学院学报》：(6)：32-38。
Chen, H[陈桦],2008,中国学生英语语调模式研究.上海外语教育出版社。
Chen, H, et al[陈桦,孙欣平,张颖],2008,英语语调意识训练的重要性、必要性及有效性,外语学刊：(2)：135-139。
Cheng, M.C., Lai, Y.H., Chang, B.F., Yuan. Y. (2005). Syllable-timing or Stress-timing: An Analysis of Taiwan College Students' English Speech Rhythm. Shude Keji Daxue Xuebao:volume 7 (2).
Chomsky, N., & Morris, H. (1968). The Sound Pattern of English. New York:Harper and Row,1968.
Christopher, A., Gout, A., Peperkamp, S. & Morgan, J. (2003). Discovering words in a continuous speech stream:The role of prosody. Journal of Phonetics,31: 585-598.
Christopher, A., Nespor, M., Guasti, M.T. & van Ooyen,. (2003). Prosodic structure and syntactic acquisition.:the case of head-direction parameter. Developmental Science,6,211-220.
Chun, D. (1988). The neglected role of intonation in communicative competence and proficiency. Modern Language Journal,72,295-303.
Chun, D. (1998). Signal analysis software for teaching discourse intonation. Language Learning & Technology,2,61-77
Chun, D. (2002). Discourse intonation in L2:From theory and research to practice. John Benjamins, Philadelphia.
Chung, W.L. (2007). The effectiveness of explicit, implicit and noticing instruction on the perception and production of English sentence stress. PhD dissertation, Alliant International University.
Classe, A. (1939). The rhythm of English prose. Oxford:Blackwell.
Couper-Kuehlen, E. (1996). An Introduction to English Prosody. London:Edward Arnold.
Cruttenden, A. (2002). Intonation. (2nd Ed.) Peking:Peking University Press.
Crystal, D. (1969). Prosodic systems and intonation in English. Cambridge studies in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (1975). The English tone of voice. London:Edward Arnold.
Crystal, D. (2003). A Dictionary of phonology and Phonetics.4th Edition. Cambridge, MA:Blackwell.
Cuenca, D (1997). Estudio Comparative del ritmo Ingles y Espanol. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Sevilla.
Cruttenden, A. (2002). Intonation. (2nd Ed.) Peking:Peking University Press.
Cutler, A. (1980). Syllable Omission:errors and isochrony, Temporal Variables in Speech:Studies in honor of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. pp.183-190. The Hague: Mouton.
Cummings, M.G. (1992). Listen, Speak, Present. Heinle & Heinle, Boston.
Dasher, R. and D. Bolinger. (1982). On pre-accentual lengthening. Journal of the International Phonetic Association,12. pp.58-69
Dauer, R. M. (1983). Stress-timing and syllable-timing reanalysed. Journal of Phonetics 11,51-69.
Dauer, R. M. (1987). Phonetic and phonological components of language rhythm. Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Vol.5, 447-450.
DeKeyser, R. M.1995. Learning second language grammar rules:an experiment with a miniature linguistic system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,17: 379-41 O.Jones, D. (edited by Peter Roach, James Hartman and Jane Setter).
De Bot, K. (1980). The role of feedback and feedforward in the teaching of pronunciation-an overview. System,8,35-47.
De Bot, K.(1983). Visual feedback of intonation I:effectiveness and induced practice behavior. Language & Speech.26,331-35-
De Bot, K., Mailfert, K. (1982). The teaching of intonation:fundamental research and classroom applications. TESOL Quarterly.16,71-77
Delattre, P. (1966). A comparison of syllable length conditioning among languages. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, IV (3), 183-198.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press
Duanmu, San. (1990). A Formal Study of Syllable Tone, Stress and Domain in Chinese languages. Doctoral dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mas.
Duan, M.S.[端木三],2007,重音、信息和语言分类,语言科学(9)：3-16。
Elliott, R. A. (1995). Foreign Language Phonology:Field Independence, Attitude, and Success of Formal Instruction in Spanish Pronunciation. Modern Language Journal,79:530-42.
Elliott, R. A. (1999). On the Teaching and Acquisition of Pronunciation within a Communicative Approach. Hispania, Vol.80, No.1. (Mar.,1997),95-108.
Ellis, N. C. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning:Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,5, 289-318
Ellis, N. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,24,143-188.
Ellis, R. (2003). The study of second language acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Language and Education Press.
Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of Instructed Language Learning. Volume 7 Asian EFL Journal.
Epstein, A.G. (1978). Sprogmangler hos born. Copenhagen:Dansk Videnskabs Forlag.
Eubank, L., & Gregg, K.R. (2002). News flash-Hume still dead. Studies in Second Language Acquisition.24,237-247.
Fan, C. Y., Chen, C. F., & Lin, H. P. (1998). Helping Chinese students to develop sensitivity to English rhythm. Studies in English Language and Literature, No.3, February,13-17.
Fant, G., Krukenberg, A., & Nord, L. (1991). Durational correlates of stress in Swedish, French and English. Journal of Phonetics,19(3/4),351-365.
Fathman, A. (1975). Language background, age, and the order of acquisition of English structures. In Burt and Dulay (eds.)
Feng,Y.[冯友],2005,大学英语学习者吞音现象调查,外语教学与研究,第6期。
Flege, J. E. in press. "Give input a chance!" Input Matters. Eds. M. Young.Scholten and T. Piske. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters. Piske. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Frota, Sonia & Marina Vigario. (2001). On the correlates of rhythmic distinctions:The European/Brazilian Portuguese case. Probus 13:247-275
Fry. D.B. (1955). Duration and intensity as physical correlates of linguistic stress. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,27(4),765-768
Fry. D.B. (1958). Experiments in the perception of stress. Language and Speech,1, 126-152
Gao,X[高霞],2006,中国英语学习者朗读错误实证研究.解放军外国语学院学报：(5)。
Garlimore, R.&R.G. Tharp. (1981). The interpretation of elicited imitation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders.48.1:35:9
Gass, S. (1988). Integrating research areas:A framework for second language studies. Applied Linguistics,9,198-217.
Gass, S. (1997) Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gass, S., Mackey, A., Alvarez-Torres, M.J.,&Fernandez Garcia, M. (1999). The effects of task repetition on linguistic output. Language Learning,49,549-581.
Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (eds.) (1983). Language Transfer in Language learning. Rowley, Mass.:Newbury House.
Gilleece, L.F. (2006). An empirical investigation of the association between musical aptitude and foreign language aptitude. PhD dissertation, Trinity College
Gimson, A. (1962). An introduction to the pronunciation of English. London:Edward Arnold.
Girand, C. (2006). Prenuclear Accentual Structure in Conversational English:Forms and Function. PhD dissertation, University of Colorado.
Grabe, E. and Low E. L. (2002). Durational variability in speech and the rhythm class hypothesis. In Gussenhoven C. and Warner N. (eds) Laboratory Phonology 7, 515-546. Berlin:Mouton de Gruyter. Kozhevnikov V. A. and Chistovich.
Grosser, W. (1993). Aspects of acquisition of L2 intonation. In "Current issues in European Second Language acquisition Research" (Bernhard Kettemann & Wilfried Wieden). Gunter Narr Verlag
Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Gussenhoven, C. (2004). The phonology of Tone and Intonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Gut, U. (2005). Nigerian English prosody. English World-Wide,26.2:153-177.
Hahn, L. D. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL QUARTERLY, VOL 38. NO.2.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1967). Intonation and Grammar in British English. The Hague, Paris:Mouton.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1970). A course in spoken English. London:Oxford University Press
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to Functional Grammar. London:Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2000). An introduction to functional grammar. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Hardison, D. M. (2004). Generalizations of computer-assisted prosody training: Quantitative and qualitative findings. Language Learning and Technology,8, 34-52.
Harmer, J. (1982). What is communicative? ELT Journal,36,164-168
Hirschberg, J. (1993). Pitch accent in context:Predicting intonational prominence from text. Artificial Intelligence,63:305-340.
Howie, J. M. (1976). Acoustical studies of Mandarin vowels and tones. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hu, Z.L. & Jiang W.Q.[胡壮麟姜望琪],(2003),语言学高级教程,北京大学出版社。
Hua,T.F. (2003) The acquisition of English speech rhythm by adult Chinese ESL and EFL learners. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii.
Hulstijn, J.H. (2002). What does the impact of frequency tell us about the language acquisition device? Studies in Second Language Acquisition.24,269-273.
Hulstijn, J., & DeKeyser, R. (Eds.). (1997). Testing SLA theory in the research laboratory [Special issue]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,19.
Jenkins, J. (1998). Which pronunciation norms and models for English as an International Language? ELT Journal.52(2):119-126.
Jensen E.D., & Vinther, T. (2003). Exact repetition as input enhancement in second language acquisition. Language Learning,53,373-428.
Jone, R.H., Rusmin, R., & Evans, S. (1994). Self-assessment o pronunciation of Chinese tertiary students. In language Awareness in language education: Proceedings of the International Language in Education Conference, (eds) D. Nunan, R. Berry and V. Berry, pp,169-180. Department of Curriculum Studies, the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Jones, D. (1976). An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge University Press.
Juffs, A. (1990). Tone, syllable structure and interlanguage phonology:Chinese learners' stress errors. IRAL,28(2),99-115
Kadia, K. (1988). The effect of formal instruction on monitored and spontaneous naturalistic interlanguage performance. TESOL QUARTERLY:22:509-15
Kenworthy, J. (1987). Teach English pronunciation. London:Longman.
Kiewra, K.A. & Mayer, R.E. (1991). Effects of repetition on recall and Note-taking: strategies for learning from lectures. Journal of Educational Psychology.83(1), 120-123
Kim, H. (2006). Speech rhythm in English:A corpus study. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbaba-Chaipaign.
Kim, H., Yoon, T., Cole, J., & Hasegawa-Johnson, M. (2006) Acoustic Differentiation Between L- and L-L% in Switchboard and Radio News Corpus. ISCA International Conference on Speech Prosody. May 2-5, Dresden, Germany.
King don, R. (1958). The Groundwork of English Intonation. London:Longman.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis:Issues and implications. London: Longman.
Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach:Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford:Pergamon Press.
Ladd, D.R. (1996). Intonational phonology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press
Ladefoged, P. (1982). A course in Phonetics. New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanvich Inc.
Ladefoged, P. (1993). A course in phonetics (3rd Ed.). N.Y.:Harcourt Brace Jovanvich Inc.
Lane, H. L., & Schneider, B. (1963). Methods of self-shaping echoic behavior. Modern Language Journal,47,154-160.
Leather, J. & James, A. (1991). The acquisition of second language speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition.13,305-331.
Lecumberri, L.G. et al (1997). Accentual Realization in English and Spanish. ESCA international workshop on intonation:141-144.
Lecumberri L. G (1997). Traditional British analyses of intonation:a review. Atlantis 19:103-112.
Leech. G. Svartvik, J. (1975). A communicative grammar of English. Pearson ESL
Lehiste, I. (1970). Suprasegmentals. M.I.T.Press.
Lehiste, I. (1977). Isochrony reconsidered. Journal of Phonetics,5:253-263.
Lehiste, I. (1990). Some aspect of the phonetics of metrics. In K. Wiik, & I. Raimo (Eds.), Nordic Prosodic V, (pp.206-218). Turku:University of Turku.
Leow, R. (1997). Attention, awareness and foreign language behavior. Language Learning,47,467-505.
Lieberman, P. (1960). Some acoustic correlates of word stress in American English. Journal of Acoustical Society of America,32,451-454.
Lieberman, P. (1967). Intonation, Perception, and Language. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
Lightbown, P. M., Spada, N., Wallace, R. (1980). Some effects of instruction on child and adolescent ESL learners. In Scarcella and Krashen (eds.)
Lightbown, P. M., Spada, N., & White, L. (Eds.). (1993). The role of instruction in second language acquisition [Special issue]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,15.
Lin, M.C., Fan, C.Y., & Chen, C.F. (1995). Teach pronunciation in a learner-centered classroom. Paper presented at the TEFL Conference (12th, Taichung, Taiwan, May 20,1995.
Lin, M.C., Yan, J.Z., & Sun, G.H. (1983). The stress pattern and its acoustic correlates in Beijing Mandarin. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences.504-514.
Lin, H. & Wang, Q. (2008a). Interlanguage Rhythm in the English Production of Mandarin Speakers, Proceeding of the 7th conference of International Phonetics, Beijing, China.
Lin, H. & Wang, Q. (2008b). Mandarin Rhythm:An acoustic study. Chinese Linguistics and Computing. February,2008
Lin, H. (2010). Personal communication at the ninth Phonetic conference of China, Tianjin
Liu, Q. Y. et al.[刘巧媛,刘阳林,唐小玲,宁波],2006,高校英语电影口语模仿教学之探析,湖南师范大学教育科学学报2006年第五卷第03期。
Long, M. H. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL QUARTERLY,17,359-382.
Low, E.L. (2006). A review of recent research on speech rhythm:Some insights for language acquisition, language disorders and language teaching. In R. Hughes (Ed.), Spoken English, TESOL and applied linguistics:Challenges for theory & practice. London:Palgrave-Macmillan.
Lust, B., Chien, Y., & Flynn, S. (1987). What children know:methods for the study of the first language acquisition. In B. Lust, Studies in the acquisition of anaphora, vol. Ⅱ. Dordrecht:D. Reidel Publishing Company.271-356
Mackay, I. (1985). Introducing practical phonetics, Taipei:Crane Inc.
Mac Whinny, B. (1997). Implicit and explicit processes:Commentary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,19,277-282.
Marcus, S. (1981). Acoustic determinants of perceptual center (p-center) location. Perception and Psychophysics.30, pp.247-256.
Makino, T. (1980). Acquisition order of English morphemes by Japanese secondary school students. Journal of Hokkaido University Education 30:101-48.
Maniruzzaman, M. (2007). "Teaching EFL Pronunciation:why, what and how?" from http://www.articlesbase.com/authors/dr.-m.-maniruzzaman/38966.htm
McGory, J.T. (1997). Acquisition of intonational prominence by Seoul Korean and Mandarin Chinese speakers. PhD Dissertation, Ohio State University.
Mermen, I. (1998). Second language acquisition of intonation:The case of peak alignment. Chicago Linguisitc Symposium,327-341
Mimatsu, K. (2000). An essay on incorrect English pronunciation of text reading by Japanese college students, retrieved from http://www.lingua.tsukuba.ac.jp./ip pan/JGL. 2000/2000-Mimatsu.pdf
Mochizuki-Sudo, M., & Kiritani, S. (1991). Production and perception of stress-related durational patterns in Japanese learners of English. Journal of Phonetics.19, 231-248.
Morton, J., Marcus, S., & Frankish, C. (1976). Perceptual centers (P-centers). Psychological Review,83:405-408
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners. Language Learning.45, 73-97.
Murakawa, H. (1981). Teaching English Pronunciation to Japanese Adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,.University of Texas, Austin.
Nation, I.S.P. (1989). Improving English Fluency. System.17(3),377-384.
Neufeld, G (1977). Language Learning Ability in Adults:A Study on the Acquisition of Prosodic and Articulatory Features. Working Papers in Bilingualism:12: 45-60.
Neufeld, G. (1978). On the Acquisition of Prosodic and Articulatory Features in Adult Language Learning. Canadian Modern Language Review,34:161-74.
Newell, A., & Rosenbloom, P.S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In J.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive Skills and their acquisition (1-55). Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
Newman, S. (1946). On the Stress System of English. Word,2.171-187
Nguyen, T. A. T. (2003). Prosodic Transfer:The tonal constraints on Vietnamese acquisition of English stress and rhythm. PhD thesis. University of Queenslang, Australia.
Noteboom, S. (1983) Is speech production controlled by speech perception? In van den Broecke et al. ed. Sound structure. Studies for Antonie Cohen,183-94. Dordrecht: Foris.
Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction:A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning,50,417-528.
O'Connor, J. D. (1965). Perception of time intervals. Progress Report 2, Phonetics Laboratory, University College London,11-15.
O'Connor, J. D. (1968). The duration of the foot in relation to the number of component sound segments. Progress Report 3, Phonetics Laboratory, University College London,1-6.
O'Connor, J. D. (1973). Phonetics. Harmondsworth/UK:Penguin Books.
Park, K.M.,Lee, O.H. & Kim, J.M. English rhythm in foreign language education for Koran learners (abstract only). In Proc. PAAL. Okayama, Japan,2003.
Patel, A., L(?)qvist, D., & Naito, W. (1999). The acoustic and kinetmatics of regularly-timed speech:A database and method for the study of the P-center problem. Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Phonetic sciences, San Francisco,1999,1, pp.405-408
Pennington, M.C. (1996). Phonology in English language teaching:an international approach. Longman, London.
Pennington, M.C. & Ellis, N. (2000). Cantonese speakers'memory of English sentences with prosodic cues. Modern Language Journal,84,372-389.
Perin, D. (2002). Repetition and the Informational Writing of Developmental Students. Journal of developmental education.26(1),2-7.
Pica, T. (1983). Adult acquisition of English as a second language under different conditions of exposure. Language Learning 33:465-97.
Pica, T. (1985). The selective impact of instruction on second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics 6:214-22.
Pierrehumbert, J. (1980). The Phonology and Phonetics of English Intonation. M IT.
Piererhumbert, L., & Hirschberg, J. (1990). The meaning of intonational contours in discourse. I n P. Cohen, J.M organ & M. Polack (eds.), Intentions in Communication, Cambridge MA:MIT Press.
Pierrehumbert, J., & Beckman, M. (1988). Japanese tone structure. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pike, K. (1945). The intonation of American English. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
Pisoni, D. & Lively, S.1995. Variability and Invariance in Speech Perception. A New Look at Some Old Problems in Perceptual Learning. Chapter 15 in Strange, Winifred. (Eds.) Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience:Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Cross-Language Research. Timonium, MD:York Press Inc. pp.433-459.
Qin, X. Y.[秦小怡],2007,英语重音、节奏、语调的话语信息传递特征研究,海南大学学报2007(2)：95-99。
Prator, C. H., & Robinett, B. W. (1985). Manual of American English pronunciation (4th Ed.). N.Y.:CBS College Publishing.
Ramus F., Nespor M., & Mehler J. (1999). "Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech Signal". Cognition.72,1-28. Ross J. and Lehiste I. (2001)
Ramus, F. (2002). Acoustic correlates of linguistic rhythm:Perspectives. Speech Prosody.2002.
Ramus, F. (2000). Perception of linguistic rhythm by newborn infants. Manuscript.
Ramus, F., Dupoux, E., & Mehler, J. (2003). The psychological reality of rhythm classes:Perceptual studies. Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Barcelona,337-342.
Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J. (1999). Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal, Cognition,72,1-28.
Reber, A. (1976). Implicit learning of synthetic learners:the role of instructional set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Learning and Memory,2:88-94.
Reber, A., Kassin, S., Lewis, S. and Cantor, G. (1980).On the relationship between implicit and explicit modes in the learning of a complex rule structure.. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Learning and Memory,6:492-502.
Roach, P. (1982). On the distinction between'stress-timed'and'syllable-timed' languages. In D. Crystal, Linguistic controversies, London:Edward Arnold.73-79.
Roach, P.1983. English Phonetics and Phonology:A Practical Coursebook. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Roach, P. (2004). British English:Received Pronunciation. Journal of the International Phonetic Association.34(2),239-245.
Robinson, P. (1995). Attention, memory and the "noticing hypothesis." Language Learning,45,283-331.
Rogers, H. (2000). The sounds of language:An introduction to phonetics. Harlow: Longman.
Rott, S. (1999). The effect of exposure frequency on intermediate language learners' incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition:21,589-619.
Russ, Charles, V.J. (1993). The German language today:a linguistic introduction. Language arts & Disciplines.278.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1986). Comprehension vs. acquisition:Two ways of processing input. Applied Linguistics,7,239-256.
Schmerling, S. F. (1976). Aspects of English Sentence Stress. Austin & London: University of Texas Press.
Schneider,W.,&Chein, J. M. (2003). Controlled and automatic processing:Behavior, theory, and biological mechanisms. Cognitive Science,27,525-559.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics,11,129-158.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics,13,206-226.
Schweickert, R., & Boruff, B. (1986). Short-term memory capacity:Magic number or magic spell? Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition,13,419-425.
Scott, D. R., Isard, S. D. & De Boysson-Bardies, B. (1985). Perceptual isochrony in English and in French. Journal of Phonetics,13,155-162.
Shen, Y., & Peterson, G G (1962). Isochronisms in English. Studies in Linguistics, Occasional Papers,9,1-36. University of Buffalo
Shen, X.S. (1993). Relative duration as a perceptual cue to stress in Mandarin. Language and Speech,36(4),415-433.
Shen, X.S. (1994). The prosody of Mandarin Chinese. Berkeley:University of California Press.
Spada, N. (1997). Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition:A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching,30,73-87.
Suter, Richard W. (1976). Predictors of Pronunciation Accuracy in Second Language Learning. Language Learning,26:233-53.
Taylor, D. S. (1981). Non-native speakers and the rhythm of English. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching:19 (3).
Taylor, David S. (1993). Intonation and accent in English:What teachers need to know. IRAL:International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching,31 (1).
Tian, Z.X.[田朝霞],英语口语语篇中调核位置和信息焦点,外语与外语教学,2005年第四期。
T'Hart, J., & Collier, R. (1975). Integrating different levels of intonation analysis. Journal of Phonetics,3,235-255.
Trager, GL., and H.L.J. Smith. (1951). An Outline of English Structure. Norman, Oklahoma:Battenburg Press,1951.
Trovimovich, P., & Gatbobton, E. (2006). Repetition and focus on form in processing L2 Spanish Sounds:Implications for Pronunciation Instruction. Modern Language Journal,90 (2006).
Trovimovich, P. & Baker, W. (2006). Learning second language suprasegmentals: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech, Studies in Second Language Acquisition,28,1-30.
Tseng, C. Y. (1981). An acoustic phonetic study on tones in Mandarin Chinese. Doctoral dissertation, Brown University.
Turner, D. (1979). The effect of instruction on second language learning and second language acquisition. In Anderson (eds.) 1979.
Ueyema, M.S., & S.A. Jun. (1998). Focus realization in Japanese English and Korean English intonation. In Japanese and Korean Linguistics. Vol.7:629-645. CSLI. Cambridge University Press
Uldall, E. T. (1971). Isochronous stresses in R. P. In:Hammerich, L. L., Jakobson, R. & Zwirner, E. (Eds.). Form and Substance:Phonetic and Linguistic Papers Presented to Eli Fischer-Jiargensen. Copenhagen:Akademisk Forlag.
Van Katwijk, A. (1974). Accentuation in Dutch. Assen:Van Gorcum.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction:Theory and research. Norwood, NJ:Ablex. Ch:1-4.
Verdugo, M.D.R. (2003). Non-native interlanguage intonation systems:A study based on a computerized corpus of Spanish learners of English. ICAME Journal,26.
Von Elek, P. & Oskarsson, M. (1975). Comparative method experiments in foreign language teaching. Department of Education Research, Molndal (Gotenburg, Sweden):School of Education.
Wang, J., & Wang, L. J. (1993). Putonghua duo yinjie shi chang fenbu moshi. Zhongguo yuwen,2,112-116.
Wang, Y., (2004). Tone Pattern and Word stress in mandarin. Proceedings of International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Language, Beijing,207-210.
Watanabe, K. (1988). Sentence stress perception by Japanese students. Journal of Phonetics,16,181-186.
Weber, Rose-Marie. (2006). Function words in the prosody of fluent reading. Journal of Research in Reading,3, pp258-269
Wells, J.C. (2006). English Intonation:An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Wenk B., & Wioland, F. (1982). Is French really syllable-timed? Journal of Phonetics, 10,193-216.
Wennerstrom, A. (1994). Intonatinal meaning in English discourse:A study of normative speakers. Applied Linguistics,15(4).
Wennerstrom, A. (2001). The Music of Everyday Speech. Oxford University Press, New York.
White, L., & Mattys, Sven L. (2007a). Calibrating rhythm:First language and second language studies. Journal of Phonetics,35:501-522.
White, L., & Mattys, Sven L. (2007b). Rhythmic typology and variation in first and second languages. In P. Prieto, J. Mascar? & M.-J. Sol? (Eds.), Segmental and prosodic issues in romance phonology (pp.237-257). Current issues in linguistic theory series. Amsterdam, Philadelphia:John Benjamins.
Wikipedia. (August,2009). "Stress (linguistics)". In Wikipedia on line. Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_ (linguistics).
Williams, J. (1999). Memory, attention and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,21,1-48.
Williams, B., & Hiller, S. (1994). The question of randomness in English foot timing:a control experiment. Journal of Phonetics,22, pp.423-439
Xiao, Y.[肖涌],2008,浅谈我国外语学习策略研究之14年,成都理工大学学报,2008年第16卷第3期。
Xu, X.M.[许曦明],2007,从英语重音看汉腔英语,宁波大学学报,第20卷第05期。
Yeon, Sang-Hee, (2004). Teach English word-final alveolarpalatals to native speakers of Koreas. PhD dissertation, University of Florida.
Young-Scholten, M., & Archibald, J. (2000). Second language syllable structure. In J. Archibald, Ed. Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic theory. Blackwell. pp.64-101.
Zhou, D.D.[周丹丹],(2005). A Comparative Dtudy of the Effects of Input Frequency and Output Frequency on Chinese Tertiary-level EFL learners'Story Retellings. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Nanjing University.
Zhou, D.D. (2006).国外练习频次研究综述,解放军外国语学院学报,2006年第2期。
Zhong, X.B., & Yang, Y.F. Foreign Researches on Prosodic Features and Stresses. ActaPsychologica Sinica,4,1999, pp.468-475. (In Chinese).