摘要
美国法官助理制度经过一百多年的发展,已经形成了一个比较完善的体系。本文力求从美国联邦法官助理制度的形成与演变、联邦法官助理的雇用体制及改革、联邦法官助理的职责、联邦法官助理的作用、联邦法官与助理的关系、联邦法官助理制度存在的问题这几个方面对美国联邦法官助理制度进行全面的论述,形成一个整体性的框架。全文的主要内容如下：
美国联邦法官助理制度的历史可追溯到一百多年以前。1875年,马萨诸塞州最高法院首席法官霍勒斯·格雷最先雇用哈佛大学法学院毕业生担任他的助理。二十世纪三十年代,法官助理制度在联邦司法系统中真正得以确立。联邦法官助理制度在发展的过程中,受到了联邦法院案件负担不断增长这一客观现象的影响和推动。总结美国联邦法官助理制度一百多年的发展历程,具有明显的阶段性特征和时代性特征。
联邦法官助理的雇用体制包括雇用程序和雇用标准两方面。对于法学院学生和法官来讲,法官助理的雇用程序紧迫而又混乱。法学院学生要申请法官助理,要作多方面的准备,申请书、推荐信、个人履历表和成绩单是必不可少的申请材料。法官挑选助理,在全美都没有通行的标准。一般来说,学习成绩往往是最重要的标准,人格和意识形态也是重要的标准。至于其它的因素,一般情况下都不是重要的标准,只是某些法官的偏好或者说是某些情况下的特殊考虑而已。
联邦法官助理雇用体制的问题源于法官助理制度的非成文化和联邦法官助理市场竞争的无序化。其中比较突出的问题是法官雇用助理的时间过早,雇用程序中的歧视等。对于这些问题,一些法官和学者也做了改革的努力和尝试,但效果并不理想。由于法官对挑选助理有完全的决定权,并不受他人的干涉。任何改革的成功都必须依赖于多数联邦法官的参与,考虑到个人利益等因素,联邦法官很难对改革达成一致意见,改革的成效也就大打折扣。
联邦法官助理的职责在不同的历史时期并不相同。即使在联邦上诉法院与地区法院之间、不同的联邦法官之间,法官助理的职责都有不同之处。联邦法官助理的职责虽然广泛,但其主要职责是进行法律研究和草拟司法意见。法官助理通过行使法官委托给他们的职责,节省法官的大量时间,提高了司法效率。其主要作用就是帮助法官来应付沉重的案件负担,但这并不是法官助理存在的唯一理由。法官助理在工作期间,除与法官形成工作上的关系外,还会形成亲密的私人关系。法官与助理之间关系虽然复杂,但都是围绕助理有效行使司法职责,实现司法上的作用而展开。
联邦法官助理在联邦司法程序中作用举足轻重,联邦法官助理制度更是成为联邦司法制度不可或缺的一部分。但还是遭到广泛的批评,法官助理在草拟司法意见中的角色更是受到猛烈抨击。联邦法官助理制度的确存在一些问题,包括削弱了法官的个人责任意识,造成法官责任的分散；造成司法意见可信度的降低等。这些问题很大程度上由案件负担的大量增加引起的,在可预见的将来还会继续存在。这些问题可被看做是联邦法官助理减轻法官案件负担的代价,只要联邦法院的案件负担不能够大幅度降低,联邦法官还会继续委托助理重要的职责,这些问题依旧会存在下去,很难从制度层面予以避免。
The institution of law clerk in federal courts in the United States that began over one hundred years ago has formed a relatively perfect system. This story composes of the formation and evolvement of the institution of law clerk, employment system of law clerk and reform in employment system, duties of law clerk, function of law clerk, relation between judge and law clerk, built-in problems in the institution of law clerk.
The institution of law clerk began over one hundred years ago. In 1875, Horace Gray, then Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court, began hiring highly-ranked, recent Harvard Law School graduates as clerks. The institution of law clerk became truly entrenched within the federal judiciary during the 1930s.The institution of law clerk was an outgrowth of the constantly increasing workload of the courts. The constantly increasing workload of the courts impels the evolvement of the institution. The history of the institution can be partitioned into three historical eras.
The employment system of law clerks composes of hiring procedures and employment criteria. The process for hiring law clerks has always been stressful and chaotic for law students and judges alike. The students have to make a wide range of preparation to apply for law clerks. Requisitions, letters of recommendation, resumes and grades are absolutely necessary. There is not a universal criterion in selecting law clerks in the United States. Generally speaking, Academic performance is the most important selection criterion. Personality and ideological compatibility are important selection criteria.
The problems in the institution arise from lack of statute law relating to law clerk and disorderliness of competition in the market for federal judicial law clerks. Earlier and earlier hiring date and discrimination in hiring process are prominent problems. For these problems, some judges and scholars have made some attempts to reform this process, but the results are unsatisfactory. The success of any reform effort necessarily depends upon a high percentage of participation among federal judges. Judges exercise great discretion when deciding which clerks to hire and whether to participate in efforts to reform the hiring process. Without high levels of participation, any reform system will fail because participating judges will consider themselves disadvantaged relative to nonparticipating judges.
The duties of law clerks are not the same in different historical periods. Furthermore, the duties of law clerks are not the same between Federal Court of Appeal and District Court, between different judges. Law clerks'primary duties are to perform legal research and draft opinions. By performing relative duties, law clerks can save judges'much time, improve efficiency in judicial process. Law clerks' primary function is to help judges to deal with increasing workload. Historically, the relationship between judge and clerk has been a very close one.
Federal judicial law clerks'role in judicial process is important, the institution of law clerks becomes an integral part of the judicial system. But the entire institution has been subjected to a wide range of criticism, This brings the strongest criticism leveled at the institution:law clerks write judicial opinions. Indeed, there are some problems in this institution. For example, this institution weakens judges'sense of duty, then results in separation of judges'duties. This institution also reduce the credibility of opinions. This problems arise from increasing workload, which can be regard as costs of dealing with increasing workload by law clerks. As long as workload of federal courts can not decrease, federal judges still delegate primary duties to their clerks, these problems can not be avoided.
引文
1薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版,第788页。
2[美]彼得·G·伦斯特洛姆编：《美国法律辞典》,贺卫方等译,中国政法大学出版社,1998年版,第104页。
3[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第146页。
4宋雷主编：《英汉法律用语大辞典》,法律出版社2005年版,第637贝。吕忠梅主编：《美国法官与书记官手册》,法律出版社2005年版,第119页。
5程超凡主编：《英汉-汉英双向法律词典》,法律出版社2007年版,第247贝。
6夏锦文：《法律职业的形成及其条件——一种制度史考察》,载《江海学刊》,2008年第1期,第143页。
7薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版,第788页。
8宋雷主编：《英汉法律用语大辞典》,法律出版社2005年版,第637页。
9[美]彼得·G·伦斯特洛姆编：《美国法律辞典》,贺卫方等译,中国政法大学出版社,1998年版,第104-105页。
10[美]布莱恩A.加纳：《牛津现代法律用语词典》(第二版)(影印本),法律出版社2003年版,第161贝。
11在美国,调卷令是上诉法院签发给下级法院要求其将某一案件的诉讼纪录移交给其审查的一个特别令状。联邦最高法院将调卷令用作其选择复审案件的工具。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版,第208页。
12 Sally J.Kenney,Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court,Law & Social Inquiry,Winter,2000,pp.194-206.
13 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.323.
14 Nadine J,Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age,Depaul Law Review, Winter,1999,p.624.
15 J,Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.324.
16 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.323.
17 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.324.
18 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process,Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.951.
19 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,l988,p.324.
20 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.324.
21 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.951.
22 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.951.
23 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review-1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.325.
24 J.Daniel Mahoney.The Second Circuit Review-1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.325.
25 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,pp.951-952.
26 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.952.
27 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review-1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.325.
28按照《暴风中心：美国政治中的最高法院》一书的作者奥布莱恩的说法,法律备忘录概括了相关的事实和争议,提出可能存在的疑问以在口头辩论期间向各方当事人的律师提出这些疑问,并且.建议法官如何进行投票。See Jan Palmer,Saul Brenner,The Law Clerks'Recommendations and the Conference Vote on-the-Merits on the U.S.Supreme Court,Justice System Journal,1995,p.186.
29 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.952.
10 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.952.
31 Henry S.Cohn,Book Review:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Federal Lawyer,October,2006,p.52.
32此书英文名为"Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk "。
33 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.952.
34参见[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第68-69页。
35参见[美]米拉·格阿里：《美国法院的司法辅助人员》,周加亮译,载褚红军主编：《司法前沿》(第一辑),人民法院出版社2006年版,第455页。
36 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.953.
37 David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Sorcerers' Apprentices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Texas Law Review,March,2007,p.953.
38参见[美]米拉·格阿里：《美国法院的司法辅助人员》,周加亮译,载褚红军主编：《司法前沿》(第一辑),人民法院出版社2006年版,第455页。
39 Todd C.Peppers, Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Stanford,2006,pp.70-205转引自Peter B.Rutledge,Book Review:Sorcerers' Apprectices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,University of Chicago Law Review,Winter,2007,p.375.
40参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第16-17页。
41 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May, 1993,p.768.
42 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sou Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.765.
43 Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996,pp.360-361.
44 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.767.
Sally J.Kenney,Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court,Law&Social Inquiry,Winter,2000,p.190.
46 Mark W.PIetcher,Ludovic C.Ghesquiere,In Restraint of Trade:the Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Plan,University of Colorado Law Review,Winter,2007,p.148.
47参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第18页。对十学生开始准备的时间,并无一个统一而明确的说法。也有学者认为正式开始于第二学年的八月到来年二月期间。See Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.776.
48 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.776.
49参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第18页。
50 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.777.
51 Trenton H.Norris.The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.778.
52 Harvey Gee,Book Review:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court La Clerk,West Virginia Law Review,Winter,2008,p.784.
53 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sou Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.775.
54参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第17页。
55 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,pp.774-775.
56 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,pp.772-773对于法官在挑选过程中的歧视现象,笔者将在本文的下一部分予以展开,力求对这一问题有清晰的理解。
57 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.776.
58 Edward S. Adams,Market-Based Solution to the Judicial Clerkship Selection Process,Maryland Law Review,2000,p.133.
59参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第16页。
60 Commission on Gender,Commission on Race&Ethnicity,Report of the Third Circuit Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts,Villanova Law Review,1997,p.1462.
61 Harvey Gee,Book Review:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,West Virginia Law Review,Winter,2008,p.783.
62 Edward R.Becker.Stephen G.Breyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and the Modest March I Solution.Yale Law Journal,October,1994,pp.221-222.
63 Sally J.Kenney,Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court,Law&Social lnquiry,Winter,2000,p.191.
64这里举几个例了,大法官格雷、霍姆斯、布兰代斯和法兰克福特(Frankfurter)偏好哈佛大学的学生,首席大法官塔夫脱和斯图尔特偏好耶鲁大学的学生,大法官墨菲偏好密歇根大学的学生；大法官道格拉斯偏好西部人,大法官偏好布莱克(Black)偏好南方人等等。
65 Edward R.Becker,Stephen GBreyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and Modest March 1 Solution,Yale Law Journal,October,1994,pp.208-209.
66 Edward R.Becker,Stephen GBreyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and Modest March I Solution,Yale Law Journal,October,1994,p.217.
67 George L.Priest,Reexamining the Market for Judicial Clerks and Other Assortative Matching Markets.Yale Journal on Regulation,Winter,2005,p.129.
68 Edward R.Becker,Stephen GBreyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and Modest March I Solution,Yale Law Journal,October,1994,p.209.
69 George L.Priest,Reexamining the Market for Judicial Clerks and Other Assortative Matching Markets,Yale Journal on Regulation,Winter,2005,p.129.
70 Edward R.Becker,Stephen GBreyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and Modest March 1 Solution,Yale Law Journal,October,1994,p.208.
71 George L.Priest,Reexamining the Market for Judicial Clerks and Other Assortative Matching Markets,Yale Journal on Regulation,Winter,2005,p.133.
72 Christopher Avery.Christine Jolls,Richard A.Posner,Alvin E.Roth.The New Market for Federal Judiacial Law Clerks,University of Chicago Law Review,Spring,2007,pp.449-450.
73 George L.Priest,Reexamining the Market for Judicial Clerks and Other Assortative Matching Markets,Yale Journal on Regulation,Winter,2005,p.125.
74 Christopher Avery,Christine Jolls,Richard A.Posner.Alvin E.Roth,The New Market for Federal Judiacial Law Clerks,University of Chicago Law Review,Spring,2007,p.451.
75这四个巡回区的情况是这样的。第三巡回区的117位法官总共雇用了1452名助理,其中女性比例为44%(644),男性比例为56%(808),这个比例与第三巡回区内的法学院和上诉区外的法学院男女生比例是一致的。See Commission on Gender,Commission on Race&Ethnicity,Report of the Third Circuit Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts,Villanova Law Review,1997.p.14581997年9月,第三巡回上诉法院法官雇用的助理中,女性占的比例为44%,1996年雇用的助理中,少数族裔占15%,这与他们在法学院的人数大致上成比例的。1996年法学院的少数族裔人数占全体法学院学生的19%。See Dolores K.SIoviter,Third Circuit:Gender,Race,and Ethnicity—Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts,University of Richmond Law Review,May,1998,p.713而哥伦比亚特区的情况并不明朗。从1989年到1994年9月,哥伦比亚特区内的联邦法官(上诉法官和地区法官)总共雇用了69名助理,其中,女性占的比例为38%(26)。See Lynn K.Rhinehart,Is There Gender Bias in the Judicial Law Clerk Selection Process?,Georgetown Law Journal,December,1994,p.576.1996年,第一巡回区的联邦法官雇用的助理中,女性占的比例超过了一半,(55%)。联邦第一上诉法院、缅因地区法院、马萨诸塞地区法院、新罕布什尔地区法院以及罗得岛地区法院联邦法官雇用的121名助理中,有12名是少数族裔。第一巡回上诉法院法官雇用的少数族裔助理比例最大(14%)。See Race and Ethnic Bias Task Forces,Report of the First Circuit Gender, the Boston University Public Interest Law Journal,Spring,2000,pp.193-1981995年11月,在第八巡回区法官助理中的女性所占比例为58%,其中,地区法院的法官助理中,女性所占比例平均为53%。See Final Report&Recommendations of the Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force,Creighton Law Review,December,1997,pp.144-145.
76参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第347页。
77 Robert M.Agostisi,Brian P.Corrigan,Do as We Say or Do as We Do?:How the Supreme Court Law Clerk Controversy Reveals a Lack of Accountability at the High Court,Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal,Spring,2001,pp.636-637.
78参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第347页。
79 Robert M.Agostisi,Brian P.Corrigan,Do as We Say or Do as We Do?:How the Supreme Court Law Clerk Controversy Reveals a Lack of Accountability at the High Court,Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal,Spring,2001,p.637.
80 Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise.Natiaonal Bar Associatio Magazine,March/April,2001,p.11.
81 Linn Washington,Jr.,Bring More Blacks to Clerking,National Bar Association Magazine,January/February,1999,p.34.
82 Robert M.Agostisi,Brian P.Corrigan,Do as We Say or Do as We Do?:How the Supreme Court Law Clerk Controversy Reveals a Lack of Accountability at the High Court,Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal,Spring,2001,p.637.
83 Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise,Natiaonal Bar Association Magazine,March/April,2001,p.10.
84 Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise,Natiaonal Bar Association Magazine,March/April,2001,p.10.
85参见乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第348页。
86 Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise,Natiaonal Bar Association Magazine,March/April,2001, pp.10-11.
87 Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise,Natiaonal Bar Association Magazine,March/April,2001,p.10.
88 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.773.
89 本图来源:Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996,p.364.由于最高法院并小记录法官助理的性别,女性法官助理的准确数字不得而知,图表一的数据是对法官助理的名字作有根据的推测得来的。
90 Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996,p.364.
91此结论是根据前注文中的图表2的数据得出来的,根据图表2的统计,88%的最高法院法官助理来自于这16所法学院。
92本图来源：Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996,p.369.
93 Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996,p.363.
94 Robert M.Agostisi,Brian P.Corrigan,Do as We Say or Do as We Do?:How the Supreme Court Law Clerk Controversy Reveals a Lack of Accountability at the High Court,Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal,Spring,2001,pp.637-638.
95在这里需要说明的一点是,由于缺少自2000年以来的数据,笔者对于女性助理的比例是否提高是不清楚的,因此这里的结论是有所保留的。
96 Patricia M. Wald,Selecting Law Clerks,Michigan Law Review,October,1990,p.156.
97 Patricia M. Wald,Selecting Law Clerks,Michigan Law Review,October,1990,p.156.
98 Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process:an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993,p.794.
99 Alex Kozinski,Confessions of a Bad Apple, Yale Law Journal,April,1991,p.1707.
100 Alex Kozinski,Confessions of a Bad Apple, Yale Law Journal,April,1991,p.1714.
101 Alex Kozinski,Confessions of a Bad Apple,Yale Law Journal, April,1991,p.1714.
102 Edward S.Adams,Market-Based Solution to the Judicial Clerkship Selection Process,Maryland Law Review,2000,p.139.
103 Todd C. Peppers and Christopher Zorn,Law Clerk Influence on Supreme Court Decision Making:An Empirical Assessment,DePaul Law Review,Fall,2008,pp.55-56.
104 Todd C. Peppers, Courtiers of the Marble Palace:The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,2006,pp.143-190.转引自Todd C. Peppers and Christopher Zorn,Law Clerk Influence on Supreme Court Decision Making:An Empirical Assessment,Depaul Law Review,Fall,2008, p.57.
105乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第70-71页。
106[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第167页。
107戴维·M·沃克：《牛津法律大辞典》,李双元等译,法律出版社2003年版,第683页。
108 I. The finding and assembling of authorities that bear on a question of law.2. The field of study concerned with the effective marshaling of authorities that bear on a question of law. See Bryan A. Garner:Black's Law Dictionary,eighth edition,p.915.
109 Legal research is the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to support legal decision-making.
110 Todd C. Peppers, Micheal W. Giles, and Bridget Tainer-Parkins,Inside Judicial Chambers:How Federal District Court Judges Select and Use Their Law Clerks,Albany Law Review,2008,p.636.
111 Richard A. Posner,Will the Federal Courts of Appeals Survive until 1984?, Southern California Law Review,March,1983,p.774.
112 Gilbert S.Merritt,Judges on Judging:The Decision Making Process in Federal Courts of Appeals, Ohio State Law Journal,Fall,1990,p.1391.
113 2005年,最高法院共收到了9608份调卷令诉状,而大法官们只开庭审理了90个案件。(In 2005, the Supreme Court had only 9,608 cases on the docket and heard argument in ninety cases.)
114[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第156页。
115[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第157页。
116 Nadine J. Wichem,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.631.
117[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第148页。
118[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第148页。
119
[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第148-149页。
120[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第151页。
121[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第151页。
122[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第153页。
123[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第156页。
124 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.339.对于法官助理制度的批评,笔者将会在下文中提及。
125最高法院大法官哈里·布莱克曼(Harry Blackmun)的前助理爱德华·拉扎勒斯(Edward Lazarus)就在Closed Chambers:The First Eyewitness Account of the Epic Struggles Inside the Supreme Cour (New York: Times Books,1998.)一书中提出证据来证明存在法官助理滥用司法权力的现象。
126 Sally J.Kenney,Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court.Law & Social Inquiry,Winter,2000,p.200.
127值得说明的是,在英语语境中,法官助理和法院助理足两种不同类型的'law clerk",在这里,法官助理还被称作肘边助理(eibow clerk)。
128[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第161页。
129[美]米拉·格阿里：《美国法院的司法辅助人员》,周加亮译,载褚红军主编：《司法前沿》(第一辑),人民法院出版社2006年版,第456-457页。
130[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第131页。
131[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第137-138页。
132乔宪志主编：《中国法官助理制度研究》,法律出版社2002年版,第328页。
133[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译芊,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第167页。
134 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.627.
135 Alex Kozinski,Confessions of a Bad Apple, Yale Law Journal,April,1991,p.1718.
136乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版,第
137 Jan Palmer and Saul Brenner,The Law Clerks' Recommendations and the Conference Vote on-the-merits on the U.S.Supreme Court,Justice System Journal,1995,p.187.
138 Jan Palmer and Saul Brenner,The Law Clerks' Recommendations and the Conference Vote on-the-merits on the U.S.Supreme Court,Justice System Journal,1995,p.187.
139 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.632.
140 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.633.
141 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.635.
142 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,1999, p.636-637.
143 The relationship between judge and law clerk is essentially a confidential one.... He should never disclose to any person any confidential information received by him in the course of his duties, nor should he employ such information for his personal gain.
144 Nadine J. Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age, DePaul Law Review,Winter,l999, p.632.
145[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》.师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第84页。
146尽管法院的官僚化进程和其他政府部门类似,它的合法性却受到特别的挑战。立法和行政部门的合法性建立在他们对民意的回应上,官僚制度却像一个屏障,削弱了这些部门的政府官员对民众的回应。而官僚制度对法院的影响力则完全体现在另一方面：它可能会削弱作为司法权合法性根源的保证法官进行独立判断的程序。需要注意的是,本文所讲的官僚化,只是在描述一种状态的意义上使用它。[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第85-86页。
147[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第86页。
148[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第86页。
149[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第98-99页。
150[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第101-102页。
151[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第104页。
152[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第157页。
153[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第157页。
154[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第157页。
155 Alvin B.Rubin,Views from the Lower Court,University of California Law Review,1976,p.252.
156[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第159页。
157[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第153-154页。
158例如,对妇女的歧视被称为“以性别为基础的歧视”,罪犯不是被判处坐牢而是“得到了一个监禁刑罚”,监狱囚犯是“居民”,他们得到的不是监狱律师而是“外行辩护律师”的帮助。[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第154页。
159[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第154页。
160 Kevin D. Swan,Protecting the Appearance of Judicial Impartiallity in the Face of Law Clerk Employment Negotiations,Washington Law Review,October,1987,p.819.
161 Kevin D.Swan,Protecting the Appearance of Judicial Impartiallity in the Face of Law Clerk Employment Negotiations,Washington Law Review,October, 1987,p.820.
162 Sally J.Kenney.Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court,Law & Social Inquiry,Winter,2000,p.211.
163 J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review--1986-1987 Term:Foreword:Law Clerks:for Better or to Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988,p.337.
1、乔钢良著：《“现在开庭”!——我为美国联邦法官做助理》,三联书店1999年版。
2、[美]理查德·A·波斯纳：《联邦法院》,邓海平译,中国政法大学出版社2002年版。3、[美]欧文·费斯：《如法所能》,师帅译,中国政法大学出版社2008年版。
4、戴维·M·沃克：《牛津法律大辞典》,李双元等译,法律出版社2003年版。
5、[美]布莱恩A.加纳：《牛津现代法律用语词典》(第二版)(影印本),法律出版社2003年版。
1、薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版。
2、乔宪志主编：《中国法官助理制度研究》,法律出版社2002年版。
3、宋雷主编：《英汉法律用语大辞典》,法律出版社2005年版。
4、吕忠梅主编：《美国法官与书记官手册》,法律出版社2005年版。
5、程超凡主编：《英汉-汉英双向法律词典》,法律出版社2007年版。
6、[美]彼得·G·伦斯特洛姆编：《美国法律辞典》,贺卫方等译,中国政法大学出版1998年版。
1、夏锦文：《法律职业的形成及其条件——一种制度史考察》,载《江海学刊》,2008年第1期。
1、[美]米拉·格阿里：《美国法院的司法辅助人员》,周加亮译,载褚红军主编：《司法前沿》(第一辑),人民法院出版社2006年版。
1、谭铮：《论我国法官助理制度的构建》,西南政法大学硕士学位论文,2007年。
2、朱军：《论我国法官助理制度的建立与完善》,中国政法大学硕士学位论文,2003年。
3、刘亚君：《中、美法官助理制度的比较研究》,兰州大学硕士学位论文,2006年。
4、胡伟：《中国法官助理制度研究》,苏州大学硕士学位论文,2006年。
1、J.Daniel Mahoney,The Second Circuit Review—1986-1987 Term:Foreword: Law Clerks:for Better or for Worse?,Brooklyn Law Review,Summer,1988.
2、Sally J.Kenney,Puppeteers or Agents?What Lazarus's Closed Chambers Adds to Our Understanding of Law Clerks at the U.S. Supreme Court,Law & Social Inquiry, Winter,2000. 3、Nadine J.Wichern,A Court of Clerks,not of Men:Serving Justice in the Media Age,Depaul Law Review,Winter,1999.
4、David R.Stras,Book Review Essay:the Supreme Court's Gatekeepers:the Role of Law Clerks in the Certiorari Process,Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Texas Law Review,March,2007.
5、Jan Palmer,Saul Brenner,The Law Clerks'Recommendations and the Conference Vote on-the-Merits on the U.S.Supreme Court,Justice System Journal,1995.
6、Henry S.Cohn,Book Review:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,Federal Lawyer,October,2006.
7、Peter B.Rutledge,Book Review:Sorcerers'Apprectices:100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court,Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk,University of Chicago Law Review,Winter,2007.
8、Trenton H.Norris,The Judicial Clerkship Selection Process: an Applicant's Perspective on Bad Apples,Sour Grapes,and Fruitful Reform,California Law Review,May,1993.
9、Mark R.Brown,Gender Discrimination in the Supreme Court's Clerkship Selection Process,Oregon Law Review,Summer,1996.
10、Mark W.Pletcher,Ludovic C.Ghesquiere,In Restraint of Trade: the Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Plan,University of Colorado Law Review,Winter,2007.
11、Harvey Gee,Book Review:Courtiers of the Marble Palace:the Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk, West Virginia Law Review, Winter,2008.
12、Edward S. Adams,Market-Based Solution to the Judicial Clerkship Selection Process,Maryland Law Review,2000.
13、Commission on Gender,Commission on Race&Ethnicity,Report of the Third Circuit Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts,Villanova Law Review,1997.
14、Edward R.Becker,Stephen G.Breyer,and Guido Calabresi,The Federal Judicial Law Clerk Hiring Problem and the Modest March 1 Solution,Yale Law Journal,October,1994.
15、George L.Priest,Reexamining the Market for Judicial Clerks and Other Assortative Matching Markets,Yale Journal on Regulation,Winter,2005.
16、Christopher Avery,Christine Jolls,Richard A.Posner,Alvin E.Roth,The New Market for Federal Judiacial Law Clerks,University of Chicago Law Review,Spring,2007.
17、Dolores K.Sloviter,Third Circuit:Gender,Race,and Ethnicity—Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts,University of Richmond Law Review,May,1998.
18、Lynn K.Rhinehart,Is There Gender Bias in the Judicial Law Clerk Selection Process?,Georgetown Law Journal,December,1994.
19、Race and Ethnic Bias Task Forces,Report of the First Circuit Gender,the Boston University Public Interest Law Journal,Spring,2000.
20、Final Report&Recommendations of the Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force,Creighton Law Review,December,1997.
21、Robert M.Agostisi,Brian P.Corrigan,Do as We Say or Do as We Do?: How the Supreme Court Law Clerk Controversy Reveals a Lack of Accountability at the High Court,Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal,Spring,2001.
22、Randy K.Jones,Esquire,Tony Mauro,Minority Law Clerks on the Rise,Natiaonal Bar Association Magazine,March/April,2001.
23、Linn Washington,Jr.,Bring More Blacks to Clerking,National Bar Association Magazine，January/February,1999.
24、Patricia M. Wald,Selecting Law Clerks,Michigan Law Review,October,1990.
25、Alex Kozinski,Confessions of a Bad Apple,Yale Law Journal,April,1991.
26、Edward S.Adams,Market-Based Solution to the Judicial Clerkship Selection Process,Maryland Law Review,2000.
27、Todd C. Peppers and Christopher Zorn,Law Clerk Influence on Supreme Court Decision Making:An Empirical Assessment,DePaul Law Review,Fall,2008.
28、Todd C. Peppers, Micheal W. Giles, and Bridget Tainer-Parkins,Inside Judicial Chambers:How Federal District Court Judges Select and Use Their Law Clerks,Albany Law Review,2008.
29、Richard A. Posner,Will the Federal Courts of Appeals Survive until 1984?, Southern California Law Review,March,1983.
30、Gilbert S.Merritt,Judges on Judging:The Decision Making Process in Federal Courts of Appeals, Ohio State Law Journal,Fall,1990.
31、Alvin B.Rubin,Views from the Lower Court,University of California Law Review,1976.
32、Kevin D.Swan,Protecting the Appearance of Judicial Impartiallity in the Face of Law Clerk Employment Negotiations,Washington Law Review,October,1987.