摘要
当今一些国家和地区族群冲突的现实表明,族群冲突依然是很多国家还无法破解的难题,而由此带来政治不稳定和社会失序使很多无辜的人失去了生命,并使经济衰退,整个社会难以走向繁荣昌盛。族群冲突是社会冲突的一种类别划分,如果冲突的双方沿着族裔界限展开,或者有一方可以用族群的类别加以界定并基于族群认同来动员其成员,那么这类冲突就属于族群冲突。
族群冲突的前提是族群多元化。然而,族群多元化本身并不必然导致族群冲突。族群冲突基于族群认同,但也源于现代国家构建中更为深层次的政治、经济等方面的结构性诱因。论文在对国内外族群冲突研究成果进行梳理的基础上,对族群冲突研究的核心概念作出了界定,分析了族群冲突的特征、类型。在此基础上,对现代国家构建进程中的族裔民族主义引发的冲突、经济现代化进程中出现的资源竞争型族群冲突、以及国家民主化转型中的族群政治冲突进行了综合性的政治分析,并详细和深入地比较分析了遏制族群冲突的理论思路和制度建设方案。
本文的主要观点和结论包括四个方面。第一,族裔民族主义导致的冲突是族群冲突中高度政治化的一种族群冲突类型,也是民族国家框架下最难治理的族群冲突类型。在一个有着聚居型族群的多族群社会中,从长期来看,国家的政治建设如果难以构建一种包容性、可调适的政治体制,则很容易激发族裔民族主义的兴起,并导致族群政治冲突的发生。
第二,现代国家构建进程中的民族整合,主要在于一个国家现代化进程中的经济整合和社会整合的有效性。在现代化进程中,一个国家内部不同族群之间的资源竞争也成为了导致族群冲突的重要结构性因素之一,如果族群间的经济竞争激化,族群差异与经济和政治不平等相互叠加,就具有发生族群冲突的结构性可能。其中,族裔地域性移民引起的族群冲突更为普遍。
第三,族群多元化国家民主化转型中易于出现族群冲突。一个国家特定的族群政治形态实际上是族际政治力量对比的一种动态平衡的表现。民主化转型的过程包含一系列次级政治变迁以及政治过程的开放,在此过程中,原先的族群政治结构的平衡可能随着打破。在这种情况下,由于新的政治机会结构和族群政治精英的鼓动,利用原先存在的族际紧张关系,有可能引发族群冲突而致使民主化转型失败。
第四,如果族群冲突是特定政治结构和社会过程的产物,那么其发展方向必然也受到政治制度的调节和控制。从政治实践的角度来看,对于一个国家的族群多样性,有着不同的治理路径,有的国家试图通过消除差异来治理族群冲突问题,有的国家试图通过治理差异来遏制族群冲突。鉴于人类社会全球化的发展,消除差异的方法不仅不具有道德上的可辩护性,也可能落后于多元化本身产生的速度。治理差异的路径和思路有很多,但不外乎整合主义主张和调适主义主张两个大的路径。虽然很多学者提出了很多遏制族群冲突、治理族群多元化的制度方案,但是,基于一些国家的族群结构现实,如果不破除“族国同构”的同质化迷思,建立适合于自己国家族群结构的治理形态,将很难遏制族群冲突。
The reality of ethnic conflict in some countries and regions reveals that ethnic conflict is still intractable and difficult to settle today. Ethnic conflict, as a threat to be controlled, is a source of great challenges to the political stability and of social order in some multi-ethnic countries. Ethnic conflict, especially ethnic violence, leads to tremendous human suffering. It also caused economic recession, so that the whole community is difficult to move towards prosperity. Ethnic conflict is one particular form of conflict:that in which the goals of at least one party are defined in ethnic terms, and in which the primary fault line of confrontation in one of ethnic distinctions. Whatever the concrete issues may be over which conflict erupts, at least one of the parties will explain its dissatisfaction in ethnic terms.
Ethnic conflict is a consequence of ethnic pluralism. However, ethnic pluralism itself is not a sufficient cause of ethnic conflict per se. Ethnic conflict stems from the political, economic and other aspects of the more deep-seated structural factors. Based on the literature of ethnic conflict study in China and abroad, this dissertation defined the principal terms and concepts in ethnic conflict study, explores the characteristics and the types of ethnic conflict. On this basis, this dissertation takes the subject of ethnic conflicts triggered by ethnic nationalism in the process of modern nation-state building, resources competition for scarce and valued resources, as well as ethnic conflict in the outset of democratic transition. At last, this dissertation provides a detailed political analysis of the general thought and institutional arrangement of containing ethnic conflict.
The first main point of this dissertation is that ethnic nationalism is not only a highly politicized ethnic conflict, but also the most difficult type of conflict. In the process of the modern state building, If the state elite could not build an inclusive and adaptive political system, it can easily lead to the rise of ethnic nationalism and the ethno-national cries, which appears to be especially so in cases for territorially concentrated ethnic group whose desire is neither assimilation nor cultural autonomy, but a more complete political independence from the dominant society.
Secondly, the success of national integration depends on the effectiveness of economic integration and social integration. However, there is always unevenness in rates of social change among different ethnic groups leading in turn to imbalances in their relative access to economic resources, educational advantages, and political power. Indeed, resources competition between the different ethnic groups within a country in the process of modernization, also can becomes one of structural factors that lead to ethnic conflict. The ability of diverse groups in multiethnic societies to live together in relative harmony while maximizing equality in the distribution of political and economic resources among them depends in large measure on the presence of a central state with sufficient power to contain intergroup conflict to a tolerable degree, but fair enough to win the allegiance of all ethnic groups.
Thirdly, specific ethnic political structure of a country is actually a dynamic equilibrium of inter-ethnic political balance. Democratic transition, which means a series of sub-political changes and the opening of the political process, can change the structure of the balance of the ethnic politics, and creates uncertainties. In this case, due to the emergence of the new political opportunity structure, and political elite play the ethnic card by manipulating pre-existing ethnic tensions and democratic freedoms, may lead to ethnic conflict, resulting in a failed democratic transformation.
Fourthly, ethnic conflict is the product of a particular political structure and social process, so its development direction is also affected by the political regulation and control. From the point of view of political practice, different states have different strategies. Some are trying to eliminate differences in order to contain ethnic conflict, some are trying to curb ethnic conflict through the management of differences. In view of the development of globalization, to eliminate differences has no moral justification, but also may lagged behind the speed of the diversification itself. However, for many countries, if not break out the myth of homogeneity of national integration, to establish an accommodative institution and governance structure, it will be hard to settle ethnic conflict in the long run.
引文
① Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.1981.p.10.
② 族群的界定标准众说纷纭,狭义的族群是指一群共享血缘与特殊文化与语言的人们；而广义的族群则有以宗教划分者,例如北爱尔兰的天主教徒与新教徒,以及黎巴嫩的逊尼族(属回教逊尼派)、什叶族(属回教什叶派)、德鲁兹人(属回教什叶派分支)与玛隆族(为基督教玛隆教徒)：或以语言划分者,例如：斯里兰卡的僧伽罗人(说僧伽罗语)与塔米尔人(说泰米尔),以及加拿大的魁北克人；或是如同南非各族群是以种族(race)区分。而新加坡与马来西亚的马来人、华人与印度人之间,则明显有着包括种族、语言、宗教与文化各方面的歧异。本文为了研究需要,借鉴霍洛维茨的界定,从广义的层面使用族群这一概念,即族群是基于以上任何标准而具备集体意识的群体,关于族群概念将在后文展开分析。参见Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985. pp.41-52.
① Yash Ghai, " Ethnicity and Autonomy:A Framework for Analysis",in Ghai, Yash, ed. Autonomy and Ethnicity: Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-Ethnic States. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000.p.1.
② 关凯：《族群政治》,北京：中央民族大学出版社2007年版,第88页。
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② 比如盖尔纳、凯杜里、多伊奇和史密斯等人关于民族主义的研究。
③ 沃克·康纳曾经指出,选取10本发展研究的所谓经典著作,没有一本书包括一章、一节关于族裔的内容,也从没有一本将其作为副标题。而十中有六没有一个关于族群、族裔或者少数的索引。参见 Connor, Walker. "Nation-building or nation destroying?" World Politics,(1972) 24:31-55.
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① voting-pooling意指对少数族群选票的党际竞争过程。
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① 除了少数用“族群冲突”外,国内大多数的研究都以“民族冲突”为题,因此,这里对国内文献的综述基本上是以“民族冲突”为题的文献。关于术语的选择问题,将在下文中作出解释。
① 宁骚：“现代化进程中的民族冲突”,载《现代化进程中的政治与行政》(上册),北京：北京大学出版社1998年版,第94-123页。要说明的是,文中的民族冲突(ethnic conflict)和本文的族群冲突是一致的。
② 孙代尧：“解释民族冲突的三种理论图式”,《贵州民族研究》1999年第3期。
③ 关凯：《族群政治》,北京：中央民族大学出版社2007年版,第87～92页。
④ 严庆：《冲突与整合》,北京：社会科学文献出版社2011年版。
① 参见Donald. L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985. p. xi.
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① Joseph Rothschild,Ethnopolitics:A Conceptual Framework,New York:Columbia.University Press,1981.p.1.
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② 这并是说“族”和“群”不是汉语,而是说,我们已经不再在它们原有的意义上来使用这些词,而主要是在它们用来对译的英文词的意义上使用他们,这些词原有的意义反而被掩盖了.
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② 穆拉特·巴亚尔2009年发表于《族群和种族研究》的一篇文章延续了这一争论。参见Bayar Murat, "Reconsidering primordialism:an alternative approach to the study of ethnicity", Ethnic and Racial Studies,32:9, 2009,pp.1639-1657.
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① Brubaker, R. and Cooper, F. Beyond "Identity", Theory and Society 29 (1),2000,pp.1-37.
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① Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.1981.p.10.
② 参见中国社会科学院语言所词典编辑室编：《现代汉语词典(第6版)》,北京：商务印书馆2012年版,第179页。
① 参见[美]大卫·巴拉什、查尔斯·韦伯：《积极和平——和平与冲突研究》,南京：南京出版社2007年版,第27页。
② Miall, Hugn, Oliver Ramshotham, and Tom Woodhouse. Contemporary Conflict Resolution:The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflicts. Cambridge Press,1999. p.19-20.
③ Kriebserg, Louis. Constructive Conflicts:From Escalation to Resolution,2nd ed. Lanham, Md.:Rowman & Littlefield.2003. p.2.
④ 马克斯·韦伯：《经济与社会》(第一卷),阎克文译,上海：上海世纪出版集团2010年版,第129页。
⑤ Max Weber, The methodology of the social science, The Free Press,1949, pp.26-27转引自[美]科塞：《社会冲突的功能》,孙立平等译,华夏出版社1989年版,第7页。
① 参见[美]科塞：《社会学思想名家》,上海：上海世纪出版集团2007年版,第162-163页。
② [美]科塞：《社会冲突的功能》,孙立平译,北京：华夏出版社1989年版,前沿。
③ [英]拉尔夫·达仁道夫：《现代社会冲突》,林荣远译,北京：中国社会科学出版社2000年版,前言,第4页。
① Michael E. Brown, "Causes and Implications of Ethnic Conflict", in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security. Princeton:Princeton University Press.1993.pp.3-26.
② David Levinson, Ethnic Relations:A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, Oxford:ABC-CLIO, Inc, 1994,p.62.
① Donald, Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, Berkeley:University of California Press,2001.
② Daniel L. Byman, Keeping the Peace:Lasting Solutions to Ethnic Conflicts, Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001,p.6.
① David Carment, "The International Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict:Concepts, Indicators, and Theory", Journal of Peace Research 30, No.2 (1993):137.
② [德]马克斯·韦伯：《经济与社会》(第一卷),阎克文译，上海：上海世纪出版集团2010年版,第129页。
① Steve, Fenton, Ethnicity,2nd, Cambridge:Polity,2010, p.189.
② Rogers, Brubaker. Ethnicity Without Groups. Cambridge, Mass:Harvard University Press,2004.p.3.
③ Jay Rothman, Resolving Identity-Based Conflict in Nations, Organizations, and Communities, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.1997,p.11.
① Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001, p.4.
② Brubaker and Laitin, "Ethnic and Nationalist Violence," p.426.
③ Donald, Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, Berkeley:University of California Press,2001.p.475.
① Abner, Cohen, Two-Dimensional Man:An Essay on the Anthropology of Power and Symbolism in Complex Society. Berkeley:University of California Press.1974.p.94.
② 族性政治化一方面意味着政治竞争、政治组织沿着族群边界展开,一方面则意味着政治、经济利益和资源的获得往往是基于其族群身份。
③ Max Weber, "The Profession and Vocation of Politics", in Political Writings, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994.pp.310-311.
④ J.Fearon, D. Laitin. "Ethnicity,Insurgency,and Civil War". American Political Science Review,99(1), February 2003.pp.75-90.
① Milton J. Esman. An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict, Malden:Polity Press,2004. p.70.
① Barbara Harff, Ted R. Gurr, Ethnic Conflict in World Politics, Boulder, Colo:Westview Press.2004,pp.19-29.
② 严庆：《冲突与整合——民族政治关系模式研究》,北京：社会科学文献出版社2011年版,第35页。
① 曹兴：“从民族冲突类型看巴以冲突的根源”,《西亚非洲》2008年第1期。
① David Levinson, Ethnic Relations:A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, Oxford:ABC-CLIO, Inc, 1994,p.63-64.
① Amy, Chua. World on Fire:How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. New York:Doubleday.2003.
② Amy, Chua. World on Fire:How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. New York:Doubleday.2003.p.147.
① Thomas H, Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism:Anthropological Perspectives,3rd, London:Pluto.2010, p.206.
② David Harvey, "Capitalism:The Factory of Fragmentation", In J Timmons Roberts and Amy Hite (eds), From Modernization to Globalization:Perspectives On Development and Social Change, Massachusetts:Blackwell Publishers Inc.2000. pp.294-295.
③ 唐士其：《全球化与地域性——经济全球化进程中国家与社会的关系》,北京：北京大学出版社2008年版,第347页。
① Milton J. Esman. An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict. Malden:Polity Press,2004.p.24.
② 参见赵鼎新：《社会与政治运动讲义》,北京：社会科学文献出版社2006年版。
① 袁明：《国际关系史》,北京：北京大学出版社2005年版,第14页。
② Anthony, Smith, Nationalism and Modernism:A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism. London and New York:Routledge,1998,p.70.
③ Charles, Tilly, "Western state-making and theories of political transformation",in Charles Tilly (ed), The Formation of National States in Western Europe. Princeton:Princeton University Press.1975.pp.601-639.
① Charles, Tilly. "Western state-making and theories of political transformation", in Charles Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe. Princeton:Princeton University Press.1975.p.633.
② [英]安东尼·吉登斯：《民族—国家与暴力》,胡宗泽等译,北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店1998年版,第63页。
① 《马克思恩格斯选集》(第1卷),北京：人民出版社1995年版,第277页。
① 钱乘旦：《欧洲文明：民族的冲突与融合》,贵阳：贵州人民出版社,1999,第12页。
② Linda, Colley, Britons:Forging the Nation,1707-1837,New Haven,Conn:Yale University Press,1992.p.5.
① 周平：《多民族国家的族际政治整合》,北京：中央编译出版社2012年版,第75页。
① 周平：《多民族国家的族际政治整合》,北京：中央编译出版社2012年版,第234页。
① Myron Weiner, "Political Integration and Political Development," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.358, (Mar,1965), pp.52-64.
② Eugen, Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen:The Modernisation of Rural France,1870-1914. London:Chatto and Windus.1979.
① [美]迈克尔·赫克特：《遏制民族主义》,韩召颖等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2012年版,第69页。
② [美]加布里埃尔·阿尔蒙德等：《当代比较政治学：世界视野》(第8版更新版),杨红伟等译,上海：上海人民出版社2010年版,第15页。
③ [英]霍布斯鲍姆、兰格：《传统的发明》,顾杭、庞冠群译,译林出版社2004年版，第126页。
① [加]威尔·金里卡：《多民族国家中的认同政治》,刘曙辉译,《马克思主义与现实》2010年第2期。
② Eugen, Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen:The Modernization of Rural France,1870-1914. London:Chatto and Windus.1979.p.313.
③ Andreas, Wimmer, Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict:Shadows of Modernity.New York:Cambridge University Press,2002. p.3.
④ Guibernau, Monserrat, The Identity of Nations. Cambridge:Polity Press,2007.p.30.
⑤ Guibernau, Monserrat, The Identity of Nations. Cambridge:Polity Press,2007.p.25.
① [美]约翰·S.密尔：《代议制政府》,汪瑄译,北京：商务印书馆1984年版,第223页。
② 关于这个问题,可参见马德普、柴宝勇：《多民族国家与民主之间的张力》,《政治学研究》2005年第3期。
① [美]莱斯利·里普森：《政治学的重大问题》,刘晓等译,北京：华夏出版社2001年版,第290页。
② [日]绫部恒雄：“民族、国家和民族性之概念”,《民族译丛》1985年第3期。
③ 参见Alfred Stepan, Juan J.Linz, Crafting State Nations:India and Other Multinational Democracies, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2011, pp.3-23.
① Charles.Taylor, "Nationalism and Modernity", in McKim, Robert and McMahan, Jeff(eds.), The Morality of Nationalism. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1997, pp.31-55.
② Guibernau Monserrat, The Identity of Nations, Cambridge:Polity Press,2007.p.61.
① Joel S. Migdal, State in Society:Studying How State and Society Transform and Constitute One Another, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001.
① [美]加布里埃尔·阿尔蒙德等：《当代比较政治学：世界视野》(第8版更新版)，杨红伟等译,上海：上海人民出版社2010年版,第15页。
② [美]基辛：《人类学与当代世界》,张恭启、于嘉云译,台湾：巨流图书公司1981年版，第153页。
③ [美]加布里埃尔·A-阿尔蒙德等：《比较政治学：体系、过程和政策》,北京：东方出版社2007年版,第35页。
① Will Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular:Nationalism, Multiculturalism and Citizenship. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001,p.223.
② Will Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular:Nationalism, Multiculturalism and Citizenship. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001,p.223.
① Manuel, Castells. The Power of Identity,2nd, Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell,2010, p.42.
② Gorenburg, Dmitry, Minority Ethnic Mobilization in the Russian Federation. New York:Cambridge University,2003, pp.257-271.
③ Jochen Hippler (ed.), Nation-Building:A Key Concept for Peaceful Conflict Transformation, London:Pluto Press,2005, p.3.
① Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven:Yale University Press,1968.p.46.
① [英]约翰·S.密尔：《代议制政府》,汪瑄译,北京：商务印书馆1984年版,第226-227页。
② [美]西摩·马丁·李普塞特：《共识与冲突》,张华青等译,上海：上海世纪出版集团,2011,第282页。
③ Ralph, Dahrendorf, "Preserving Prosperity", in New Statesman and Society,13/29 (Dec.1995), pp.36-40.
③ [英]安德鲁·海伍德：《政治学》,张立鹏译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2006年版,第208页。
④ 参见John P. Loughlin, Regionalism and Ethnic Nationalism in France:a Case Study of Corsica, Florence: European University Institute,1989.
① 参见Juan, Linz, "Early State-Building and Late Peripheral Nationalisms against the State:The Case of Spain." In Building States and Nations:Analyses by Region, Volume Ⅱ.Edited by S. N. Eisenstadt and Stein Rokkan. Beverly Hills:Sage,1973, pp.32-116.
② Juan, Linz. "Politics in a Multi-Lingual Society with a Dominant World Language:the case of Spain" 1975,p.423.
③ 参见王建娥：《族际政治：20世纪的理论与实践》,北京：社会科学文献出版社2012年版,第125页。
① 比斯开(巴斯克语Bizkaia,西班牙语：Vizcaya),为西班牙北部的一个省份,位于巴斯克自治区的西北部。当地使用巴斯克语的方言比斯开语。
② 于福坚：“从巴斯克民族主义运动的演变看西班牙民族政策”,《中国民族报》2009年12月18日。
① Farimah Daftary, "Insular Autonomy:A Framework for Conflict Resolution? A Comparative Study of Corsica and the Aland Islands,2001,pp.19-40.
② Alfred Stepan, Juan J.Linz, Crafting State Nations:India and Other Multinational Democracies,Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,2011, p.239.
③ "Euskadi Ta Askatasuna",巴斯克语,意为“巴斯克人的国家和自由”。
④ Raymond C. Taras,Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict:The International Dimension,2nd ed. New York:Longman,2002.p.157.
① Benyamin Neuberger, "Ethnic Groups and the State in Africa", in Ethnic Challenges to the Modern Nation States, Shlomo Ben-Ami (eds), Lodon:Macmillan Press,2000,pp.294-309.
② 宋丽梅：“非洲民族冲突的根源”,《中国社会科学院院报》2004年7月29日。
① 李伯军：“非洲民族国家建构面临的挑战与国际法”,《法治研究》2011年第3期。
② “失败国家”这一概念及理论,带有西方国家对第三世界国家的强烈偏见,为超级大国的霸权主义和强权政治服务。
③ I. William Zartman, "Introduction:Posing the Problem of State Collapse," in Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, Colo.:Lynne Rienner,1995, p.1.
① Charles, Tilly. Coercion, capital, and European states, AD 990-1992. Cambridge MA:Blackwell.1992, p.207.
② Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven:Yale University Press,1968.pp.9-10.
① Van den Berghe, Pierre L. The Ethnic Phenomenon. New York:Praeger.1987,p.245.
① David, Brown, The State and Ethnic Politics in South-East Asia, London and New York:Routledge,1994. p.121.
① Susan Olzak and Joane Nagel, eds. Competitive Ethnic Relations. Boston:Academic Press.1986.p.1-2转引自马戎：《民族社会学——社会学的族群关系研究》,北京：北京大学出版社2004年版,第547页。
① Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality:How Today's Divided Society Endangers Our Future,p.5.
① Robert Merton,Social Theory and Social Structure,New York:The Free Press,1968.pp.186-189.
② Neil J.Smelser,Theory of Collective Behavior,NewYork:The Free Press,1962,pp.47-58.
Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul.1975.p.39.
① Donald. L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985.p.114.
① 马戎：“当前中国民族问题研究的选题与思路”,《中央民族大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2007年第3期。
① [英]戴维·赫尔德等：《全球大变革——全球化时代的政治、经济与文化》,杨雪冬等译,北京：社会科学文献出版社2001年,第392页。
① 马戎：《体制变革、人口流动与文化融合——一个草原牧业区的历史变迁、社区研究与社会发展》,天津：天津人民出版社1996年版。
② Frances Stewart, Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict:Understanding Group Violence in Multiethnic Societies. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2008.p.258.
③ Communal Violence in Indonesia, p.14.
① 参见韦红：“战后东南亚经济开发引发民族冲突诸因素分析”,《世界历史》2001年第6期。
① Eugeen Roosens,Creating Ethnicity:the Process of Ethnogenesis, Newbury Park,CA:Sage Publications,1989.p.19.转引自马戎：《民族社会学》,第71页。
② 参见Stephen Cornell, Douglas Hartmann, Ethnicity and Race:Making Identities in a Changing World,2nd ed, Thousand Oaks:Pine Forge Press,2007,p.64.
③ 关凯：“社会竞争与族群建构：反思西方资源竞争理论”,《民族研究》2012年第5期。
① James, Fearon and Laitin, David, "Sons of the Soil, Migrants, and Civil War", World Development 39(2):(2011) 199-211.
② Myron Weiner, Sons of the Soil:Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India, Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1978, p.7.
③ 转引自马丁·麦格：《族群社会学》,祖力亚提·司马义译,北京：华夏出版社2006年版,第487页。
① David A. Lake, and Donald Rothchild. "Containing Fear:The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict." in Michael E. Brown, Owen R. Cote Jr., Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller (eds.), Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict. Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press.1997. pp.97-131.
② Stephen, Steinberg. The Ethnic Myth:Race, Ethnicity and Class in America. Updated and expanded ed. New York:Atheneum.1989. p.170.
① Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict. Stanford:Stanford University Press.1992.
② 关凯：“资源竞争环境如何影响族群的建构——西方资源竞争理论的反思(上)”,中国民族报2013年3月8日第8版。
① Runciman W G Relative Deprivation and Social Justice. Berkeley:University of California Press.1966.
② 格尔这里所指的价值是指人们期待的事件、目标和境况。参见Robert T. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press,1971.p.87.
(?) 王宗礼：“多族群社会的国家建构：诉求与挑战”，《马克思主义与现实》2012年第4期。
① William Wordsworth,Letters of the Wordsworth Family from 1787 to 1855:Vol.1.(W. Knight, ed.). Boston:Ginn and Company,1907,p.66,转引自Carole Pateman,Democracy and Democratization. Presidential Address:XVIth World Congress, IPSA,International Political Science Review,Vol.17, No.1 (Jan.,1996), pp.5-12.
① C.B.Macpherson, The Real World of Democracy, Oxford:Clarendon Press.1966.p.1.
① [美]萨托利：《民主新论》,冯克利、阎克文译,上海人民出版社2009年,第3页。
③ Schmitter, Philippe C. Karl, Terry Lynn, "What Democracy Is.... and Is Not?" Journal of Democracy Vol 2, No. 3,1991, pp.75-88
④ Robert, Dahl. On Democracy, New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,1999,p.2-3.
① Robert,Dahl.On Democracy,New Haven,CT:Yale University Press,1999,p.38.
① Ronald Inglehart, Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2005,p.2.
② Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy:Explaining Ethnic Cleansing, New York:Cambridge University Press,2005,p.3.
① 刘军宁：《民主与民主化》,北京：商务印书馆1999年版,第14页。
② [美]罗伯特·达尔：《多头政体——参与和反对》,北京：商务印书馆2003年版,第21页。
① Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy:Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (1959):75.
① 程同顺、高飞：“异质社会的民主”,《学习论坛》2010年第6期。
② Jose G Montalvoa and Marta Reynal-Querol, "Ethnic diversity and economic development", Journal of Development Economics 76 (2005), pp.293-323.
③ Robert Dahl, Polyarchy:Participation and Opposition, New Haven:Yale University Press,1971, pp.109-111.
④ Alvin Rabushka and Kenneth A. Shepsle, Politics in Plural Societies:A Theory of Democratic Instability, Columbus:Charles E. Merrill,1972,p.92,118,217.
① Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies, p.56.
② Bingham Powell, Contemporary Democracies:Participation, Stability, and Violence, Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1982 pp.44-46.
③ [美]胡安·林茨等：《民主转型与巩固的问题：南欧、南美和后共产主义欧洲》,孙龙等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2008年版,第30页。
④ 王缉思、唐士其：“三十年来的世界政治变迁——同一性与多样性并存”,《国际政治研究》2010年第1期。
① Fearon, J. D. and D. D. Laitin, "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.", American Political Science Review. Vol. 97,2003, p.78.
② Larry, Diamond,"Is the Third Wave Over?", Journal of Democracy,(7)1996,pp.20-37.
① Steven M. Fish, and Robin S. Brooks. "Does Diversity Hurt Democracy." Journal of Democracy,15(1):2004. 154-166.
② 胡伟、李德国：“异质社会政治秩序的建构——交叉压力假说的理论脉络与解析”,《中国社会科学》2006年第4期。
① Robert A. Dahl, Pluralist Democracy in the United States:Conflict and Consent, Chicago:Rand McNally,1967, p.277.
② Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy:Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics,2 (April
① Seymour Martin Lipset, and Stein Rokkan. "Cleavage Structures, Party Systems and Voter Alignments." in Party Systems and Voter Alignments, ed. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan. New York:Free Press.1967. pp.1-64.
① 参见赵磊：“非洲族群冲突的最新进展及冲突管理”,《当代世界与社会主义》2011年第3期。
① Donald L. Horowitz, "Conciliatory Institutions and Constitutional Processes in Post-Conflict States," William and Mary Law Review 49,4 (2008), p.1217.
① [美]西德尼·塔罗：《运动中的力盘：社会运动与斗争政治》，南京：译林出版社2005年版,第102页。
① 刘军宁编：《民主与民主化》,北京：商务印书馆1999年版,第121-141页。
② [美]胡安·林茨等：《民主转型与巩固的问题：南欧、南美和后共产主义欧洲》,孙龙等译,浙江人民出版社2008年版,第28页。
① 李文：“民主选举与社会分裂——东亚民主转型国家与地区的政治与政局”，《当代亚太》2012年第2期。
② Jack, Snyder, From Voting to Violence:Democratization and Nationalist Conflict, New York and London:W.W. Norton,2000.p.28.
① Jack Snyder and Karen Ballentine, "Nationalism and the marketplace of ideas", International Security, Vol.21, No.2 (Fall 1996),pp.5-40.Mansfiled, Edward D. and Jack Snyder (1995), "Democratization and the Danger of War," International Security,20:1, pp.5-38.
① Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics:A Conceptual Framework, New York:Columbia University Press,1981, p.141.
② [美]胡安·林茨等著《民主转型与巩固的问题：南欧、南美和后共产主义欧洲》,孙龙等译,浙江人民出版社2008年版,第32页。
② Daniel L. Byman, Keeping the Peace:Lasting Solutions to Ethnic Conflicts, Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001. p.35.
① Daniel L. Byman, Keeping the Peace, Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001 p.129.
① 参见宋丽梅：“非洲民族冲突的根源”,《中国社会科学院院报》2004年7月29日。
① Adrian Guelke, Politics in Deeply Divided Societies, Cambridge:Polity Press,2012,p.46.
① 参见Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Harvard University Press,2001; Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, Ethnic Cleansing,New York:St. Martin's Press,1996; and Wolff, "Can Forced Population Transfers Resolve Self-determination Conflicts?"
② Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Harvard University Press,2001.pp.3-4.
③ Robert Hayden, "Schindler's Fate:Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and. Population Transfers",Slavic Review, Vol. 55, No.4 (Winter 1996), p.734.
① 国内很多研究都称为分裂主义或者分离主义,但是对于冲突中的不同方面来说可能同一个行动具有不同的含义。因此,本文在这里使用政治分离。只不过政治分离的形式有和平分离，也有暴力冲突和武力解决。
② 参见[美]胡安.J.林茨、阿尔弗雷德·斯泰潘：《民主转型与巩固的问题：南欧、南美和后共产主义欧洲》,孙龙等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2008年版,第32-33页。
③ Ivor Jennings,The Approach to Self-Government,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.2011.p.56.
① [美]迈克尔·赫克特：《遏制民族主义》,韩召颖等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社,第95页。
① 王联：“三十年来以色列、土耳其、伊朗、阿富汗、巴基斯坦的政治发展”,载王辑思、唐士其主编：《三十年世界政治变迁》,重庆：重庆出版社2012年版,第371页。
② Donald L.Horowitz. Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985. Pp.567-568.
② 对于非对称分权和协合治理,在下一节将详细论述。
① Adrian Guelke, Politics in Deeply Divided Societies,Cambridge:Polity Press,2012,p.155.
① 宋立道：《暴力的诱惑——佛教与斯里兰卡政治变迁》，北京：中国社会科学出版社2009年版,第80-81页。
② 关凯：《族群政治》,北京：中央民族大学出版社2007年版，第172页。
③ Andrew, Reynolds, (ed). The Architecture of Democracy:Constitutional Design, Conflict Management and Democracy, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002.p.155.
① Will, Kymlicka, Finding Our Way:Rethinking Ethnocultural Relations in Canada, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998, p.3.
① 参见Rotimi, Suberu, "The Travails of Federalism in Nigeria," in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds, Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press.1994,pp.56-70. Valerie, Bunce, Subversive Institutions:The Design and Destruction of Socialism and the State, New York:Cambridge University Press,1999.
② United Nations, Human Development Report 2004:Cultural Liberty in Today's Diverse World, New York: United Nations.2004中译本参见联合国开发计划署：《2004年人类发展报告：当今多样化世界中的文化自由》,中国财政经济出版社,2004.
③ Frank S. Cohen,"Proportional Versus Majoritarian Ethnic Conflict Management in Democracies," Comparative Political Studies,30,5, October,1997,pp.607-630.
① Milton Esman, "Ethnic Pluralism:Strategies for Conflict Management", in Facing Ethnic Conflicts:Toward a New Realism, edited by Andreas Wimmer et al,Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2004,p.204.
① [美]菲利克斯·格罗斯：《公民与国家——民族、部族和族属身份》,王建娥等译,北京：新华出版社2003年版,第32页。
② [美]菲利克斯·格罗斯：《公民与国家——民族、部族和族属身份》,王建娥等译,北京：新华出版社2003年版,第184页。
① Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man:the Social Bases of Politics, London:Heinemann,1983,pp.12-13.
④ 美国虽然针对非洲裔美国人实行过肯定性行动,但是同时遭到了大量的批判和反对,白人认为是反向性歧视,而有些非洲裔美国人也反对肯定性行动,认为他们的成功往往被社会归结为是优惠政策的结果,而不是个人努力的体现。 p.25.
② Nathan, Glazer, Ethnic Dilemmas:1964-1982, Cambridge:Harvard University Press.1983. pp.227-229转引自
① Alfred Stepan, Juan J.Linz, Crafting State Nations:India and Other Multinational Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,2011, p.13.
② 参见常士訚主编：《异中求和：当代西方多元文化主义政治思想研究》,北京：人民出版社2009年版。
① 查尔斯·泰勒：“承认的政治”,董之林、陈谷燕译,载汪晖、陈谷燕主编《文化与公共性》,上海：三联书店1998年版,第290-337页。
② 王建娥：《族际政治：20世纪的理论与实践》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2012年版,第205页。
③ 参见Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country:Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century, Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1998, p.15.
④ John Rex," The Concept of Multicultural Society", in Guibernau M.and Rex,John (eds),The Ethnicity Reader, Cambridge:Polity Press,2010,pp.205-220.
① John Rex," The Concept of Multicultural Society", in Guibernau M.and Rex,John (eds),The Ethnicity Reader, Cambridge:Polity Press,2010,pp.205-220.
② 利普哈特本人则将这一理论的创造归之于阿瑟·刘易斯(Arthur Lewis).参见Arend Lijphart.Thinking about democracy:power sharing and majority rule in theory and practice, New York:Routledge,2008,p.4,p.278.
③ 关于阿尔蒙德和利普哈特的政体类型学分析,参见程同顺：《当代比较政治学理论》,天津：南开大学出版社2001年版,第173-174页
④ 西方社会理论和政治理论关于交叠成员身份和交叉压力的理论发展脉络,可参见胡伟、李德国《异质社会政治秩序的建构——“交叉压力”假说的理论脉络与解析》,《中国社会科学》2006年第4期。
① Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy ", World Politics, Vol.21, No.2.1969, pp.207-225.
② Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies. New Haven:Yale University Press.1977, p.19.
③ Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies. New Haven:Yale University Press.1977, p.217.
① Arend Lijphart. "Consociational Democracy," World Politics, Vol.21, No.2.1969, pp.207-225.
② Arend Lijphart, "Self-determination Versus Pre-determination of Ethnic Minorities in Power-sharing Systems", in Will Kymlicka(ed.), The Rights of Minority Cultures, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1995.
③ Andrew Reynolds, ed., The Architecture of Democracy:Constitutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy.Oxford University Press,2002, p.39.
④ Andrew Reynolds, ed., The Architecture of Democracy:Constitutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy. Oxford University Press,2002, p.41.
⑤ Arend Lijphart. Democracy in Plural Societies:A Comparative Exploration. New Haven:Yale University Press. 1977, p.54.
① Arend Lijphart. Power-Sharing in South Africa. Berkeley:Institute of International Studies, University of California.1985,p.123.
① Arend Lijphart. The Puzzle of Indian Democracy:A Consociational Interpretation. American Political Science Review.90,1996,pp.258-268.
② Arend Lijphart.. The Puzzle of Indian Democracy:A Consociational Interpretation. American Political Science Review.90,1996, pp.258-268.
③ Arend Lijphart. Democracy in Plural Societies:A Comparative Exploration. New Haven:Yale University Press. 1977, p.88.
④ Donald L. Horowitz,Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985. p.628.
① Donald L. Horowitz.Ethnic Groups in Conflict.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985. pp.365-395.
② Donald L. Horowitz, "Constitutional Design:An Oxymoron?" in Designing Democratic Institutions, Ian Shapiro and Stephen Macedo, eds. New York:New York University Press,2000, p.259.
④ Donald L Horowitz, Democratic South Africa? Constitutional Engineering in a Divided Society. Berkeley: University of California Press,1991, p.191.
① Benjamin, Reilly, Democracy and Diversity:Political Engineering in the Asia-Pacific, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006, p.87.
② Donald L. Horowitz, "Conciliatory Institutions and Constitutional Processes in Post-Conflict States," William and Mary Law Review 49,4 (2008), p.1217.
③ Donald L. Horowitz, Democratic South Africa? Constitutional Engineering in a Divided Society.Berkeley: University of California Press,1991, p.222
① 近年来,国内的学术讨论中也出现了关于“整合”与“调适”的争论,因为有关“公民化”、“文化化”、“民族共治”“第二代民族政策”等等的论争,就本身是基于“整合”还是“调适”的争论.
① Zachary Elkins, John Sides. "Can institutions build unity in multiethnic states?" American Political Science Review 101(4),2007, pp.693-708.
② Benjamin, Reilly, Democracy and Diversity:Political Engineering in the Asia-Pacific, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006.
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王建娥：“多民族国家包容差异协调分歧的机制设计初探”,《民族研究》2011年第1期。
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