摘要
19世纪俄国大学发展史，其实就是俄国大学教育体系的形成和发展的历史。19世纪是俄国文化发展的一个特殊时期，教育工作中的传统惯例在当时还很盛行，经济社会发展对科技知识的需求不断增加，科技知识发展迅速。在这一大背景下，一些大学应运而生，加快了追赶莫斯科大学的步伐，这些大学主要有：喀山大学、哈尔科夫大学、维尔诺大学（由利托夫斯基大公的总中学转变而来的）和捷尔普特大学（重新建成的像俄帝国大学那样的大学），此后还有彼得堡大学和弗拉基米尔大学等。
随着大学的迅速发展，俄国的大学章程也在不断修改和完善，在1804—1884年间有四部大学章程问世，分别是：1804、1835、1863和1884年大学章程。每一部大学章程的出现都有其特定的历史背景，都是俄国大学发展到一定阶段的产物，并在俄国大学发展过程中发挥着重要作用。
History of Russian universities in the19th century history, i.e. the period ofbudding, formation and development of Russian education system, is a special time ofthe development of Russian culture, and some universities stepped of up the pace tocatch up with the earlier established Moscow State University, including KazanUniversity, Kharkov University, the University of Vernal, Jeroput University, and thelater St. Petersburg University and the University of St. Vladimir in Kiev.
The above process is accompanied by the birth of four university charters:1804,1835,1863and1884university charters. Development of every university charter isnot by accident, which has its background and performs different functions indifferent historical period.
This paper discusses the beginnings, formation, development and maturationperiod of Russian university education system in four chapters and also analyzespreparation and development of university charter in each stage.
1. Russian universities and university charter in the first half of the19th century
1) Increased number of universities and1804University Charter
University education in the early19th century was in the bud: Academy of theUniversity was closed, number of students in Moscow State University totally didn'texceed100,and the plan of Ekaterina II to set up new universities and develop thecharter hadn't realized. Paul I had set up a number of limitations to education andmany disciplines were short of frontline professors.
The new trend in Russian universities development was directly related to thereform implemented after Alexander I first came to the throne. In overall educationreform, universities began to receive attention. According to the "Provisional Articlesof National Eucation" enacted by the Tsar in1803, a problem related to the establishment of new universities appeared. Ministry of National Education wasestablished in1802, deciding that all universities were under the direct jurisdiction ofthe Minister of National Education himself.
Kharkov University was formally established on January17(29),1805.
On November5,1804, Alexander I signed a new Moscow State Universitycharter, which was rapidly spread to Kazan University and Kharkov University, andextended to St. Petersburg University in1819and Jeroput University in1820.
1804University Charter was built on the experience of some Western Europeanuniversities, which was explicit in contents, including16chapters,187articles. First,a clear definition of the university was given.
According to the Charter, universities received a great deal of autonomy anddemocracy to resolve internal problems. The university became the district center andsupervised all schools within the area.
It can be said that1804Charter was an important step in the process of universityeducation development in Russia, which created an unprecedented autonomy systemunder autocracy conditions and facilititated the rising prestige of the university andimprovement of its work. Later events showed that1804Charter in many respectswas empty talks, because it didn't meet the reality.
However, in the last decade of the reign of Alexander I, the genuineanti-university campaign started, completely ignoring the1804Charter.
In1819, Russia set up a new university-the University of St. Petersburg,
On January17,1820, Alexander I issued orders to the Kazan University,requiring to reform education, so as to eliminate "liberal and pseudo-intellectualspirit." The former university president Г. Н. Thorn Zaitsev was expelled fromuniversity.
Kazan University became to be in great chaos.
Kharkov University was not as large as the Kazan University and St. PetersburgUniversity, but there were also a lot of professors expelled, which also strengthenedinspection of books and banned many old publications.
Moscow State University was slightly damaged, because it was the oldest and largest university, already having a fixed tradition and playing a significant role in thelife in Moscow.
In the first25years of the19th century, the Russian university education took abig step, firstly in terms of figure: the number of universities increased to seven fromthe originally only one Moscow State University, while the number of studentsincreased from100to3,000people.
2) Russian universities during the reign of Nicholas and the1835UniversityCharter
Many big events occurred in the development process of Russian universities inthe reign of Nicholas.
In the first decade after Nicholas was in power, although most Russianuniversities were at the stage of rehabilitation as a result of great damage in the firsthalf before the1820s, Moscow State University developed steadily. Several years later,Moscow State University became the center of social life across Russia.
According to Nicholas I's November8,1833directive, a university composed ofthe Faculty of Law and Department of Philosophy was established in Kiev. TheUniversity introduced a completely different temporary constitution different from1804Charter, which was applied till1842. This charter strictly limited the autonomyto the university.
Since1804Charter was systematiclly destructed, on July26,1835, the Czarapproved the new "General Charter for the Russian Imperial Universities". Overall,1835Charter completely deviated from the university charter in Western world withmany Russia-specific characteristics, but it played a huge role in the achievements ofthe Russian education in the decade thereafter. It can be said that the10years after theimplementation of1835Charter was the booming time of Russian universities.
Changes of university reinforced its credibility in society: number of studentsincreased from2,000in1836to4,000in1848and the relations between universitiesand society were strengthened.
According to students studying at the Moscow State University in1830s-1840s,students attached great importance to the classes, who were eager for knowledge.
Overall speaking, the sustained development of Russian universities began tostagnate since1845, which was especially apparent since the beginning of the1848revolution in Western Europe. Russian politicians and the Czar found university wasthe birthplace of the dangerous thought of freedom, so they took great efforts to limitthe activities of the University.
University policy reform began in1846-1847, resulting in the total number ofuniversity students in Russia decreasing from4,500in1848to3,000in1853, andteaching level greatly reduced.
Overall, the development of university system in Russia had undergone aqualitative progress during the reign of Nicholas, however, the number of universitiesdecreased, while the total number of students did not change as a whole. So you canthink, in a certain sense, university development was in a stagnated stage.
2. Russian universities and University charter in the second half of the19thcentury
1) Russian universities during capitalist reform period and the1863UniversityCharter
After Alexander II came to power, the process of change began to accelerate,with university leaders replaced, the school structure reorganized, the number ofstudents increased, teacher force optimized and students learning environment and lifechanged.
Alexander II's reforms required a substantial increase in the number of theeducated, and a serious reform of the national education, therefore, the problem offundamental university reform and the development of new university charterappeared.
A number of measures to suppress the students were bring forward during thereign of Alexander II. Student unrest broke out in autumn1861. Under the impact ofthe student movement, professors presented the issue on university reform and theadoption of new university charter at the end of1861. On June18,1863, the Czarapproved the new university charter, signifying a new stage in the history of Russianuniversities.
If we make an overall evlauation on1863charter, it can be said, firstly, itrestored the university's autonomy, which, to a certain extent, promoted the progressof university as the scientific education center; Secondly, it expanded the power of theprofessor committee, improved the financial situation of professors and encouragedmore young talents to join the team; thirdly, it established a rigous system ofuniversity talents education; fourthly, universities had the right of degree-grantingthemselves. Meanwhile, authorities continued to exercise oversight of the university,because the rights of inspectors had not been clearly defined. Without getting theexpected right, universities students still maintained the original state or even in chaos.Therefore we can say1863charter was the product of compromise between liberalismthought, the original university system and the political aspirations of the Petersburgbureaucracy. So it led to dissatisfaction from stakeholders and the desire to reform thecharter.
Researchers and many contemporaries regarded it as one of the most effectivecharters in Russian university history within the decade after its execution.
In1860-70s, Russia universities became the most avid and turbulent political lifecenter, and major participants of social movement were either university students orrecent college graduates. One of the reasons prompting college students to participatein the riots was that they had no rights, no right of communication in their spare time,as well as the long-term oversight from the police and the university supervisionorgans.
2) New attempt to limit university autonomy and the1884University Charter
The1863Charter and the subsequent changes in university life, as well as socialmovements the university students particiated in the1860-70s, all provoked variousresponses from the authorities, the society and even within the university itself.
Ministry of National Education raised the issue about the university reform in1872.
In the late1970s, strengthening of domestic liberal movement hindered thedevelopment of new charter. Therefore, the government and the Ministry of NationalEducation adopted a series of resolutions on university and college students in1879, limiting their rights, increasing the power of inspectors and reducing the role of thepresident.
On August23,1884, the Czar approved a new university charter.
The1884charter brought out a huge transformation to the university system,making the university lose many rights and privileges. Communities didn't support thethe new charter, which was under constant criticism. So, regulations were soonpromulgated to change or terminate certain provisions of the1884charter, but theydid not touch the soul of the charter, but only some details involved in the teachingprocess.
Russia universities are a large research center in the end of19thcentury and mostprofessors were engaged in the field of scientific research and made certainachievements. Almost all members of the Academy of Sciences taught at theuniversity, but the number of Russian universities and students still lag behind theEuropean powers.
The1884Charter and other measures taken by the government and the crushingpopulist movement all affected the internal university life in1880-90s. Student'smaterial life was getting worse.
When evaluating the overall situation of the late19th century Russianuniversities, K П Pobedonostsev, Inspector of Church and State Attorney GeneralAdministrative Department, in the "On University Teaching," it reads:"College is in astate of collapse, serious science is on the fall, professors are only making lectures,rather than educating the students, actively linking with the students or setting upclear goals for the students."
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