摘要
贫困,一个既古老又现实的问题,贯穿着人类社会发展的始终。它具有自我强加的持续性,类似于一个陷阱,使得处于该陷阱中的人们长期处于一种低水平的均衡状态。打破低水平均衡、跳出陷阱、终结贫困一直是人类的一个梦想,有无数的学者对这个问题进行了深入的探讨和研究。本论文旨在前人研究基础上进一步探讨贫困陷阱形成机制以及由此带来的家户福利变动问题,具体研究了技术引致的人力资本升级和风险冲击下的人力资本传递如何影响国家在技术选择、人力资本积累以及家户在子女教育获取、人力资本传递方面的决策,进而讨论了这些决策反过来将如何影响国别发展差异以及家户福利及脆弱性,最后对家户脆弱性的特征和贡献因素进行了分析,并尝试探讨了异质性个体对经济政策实施有效性的影响。
在第三章中,本文尝试通过一个宏观经济模型考察技术引致、人力资本升级与发展陷阱之间的关系。文章认为技术水平的高低是通过技术的掌握者和使用者在发挥作用,因此技术水平对人力资本积累具有引致性。模型假设发展中国家的人力资本水平是随着所选择的更新技术水平在进行升级,从而技术的分阶段更迭使得引致的人力资本分阶段累积。据此定义了一类非平滑的、周期性的生产函数,在每个阶段内人力资本是教育投入的凹函数,各阶段内的技术水平是该阶段人力资本水平所能达到的上限,通过R&D的投入实现技术的更新,最终人力资本转型升级推动经济持续增长。模型根据两种差异化的人力资本升级形式得出了两种不同的经济增长方式:持续式增长模式和颤抖式增长模式,以此可以解释发展中国家中存在的低水平均衡陷阱。我们通过数值模拟考虑了“循序渐进”式的技术引致和“跨越”式的技术引致这两种极端的技术引致方式引起的人力资本升级的情形并验证了模型中的主要命题。本章的结论是,发展中国家一味的学习和模仿领先国家的高新技术可能无法成为赶超后者的途径,因为前者的人力资本水平和潜在技术水平差距太大将使得发生转型升级的人力资本临界值过高,从而使其陷入低水平均衡状态。发展中国家要赶上经济发达国家,可以采取提高人力资本积累率、选择更为适宜的技术水平引致这两种途径实现人力资本的升级,从而摆脱发展陷阱。
在第四章中,本文试图通过一个微观经济模型考察风险、人力资本代际传递和贫困陷阱之间的关系并解释贫困家庭的孩子为什么不读书的问题。文章发现,人力资本积累对于改善家庭持续性贫困是如此重要,但是数据表明相比于高收入家庭,低收入家庭无法选择或者并不愿意让自己的子女继续接受教育。本章基于Galor和Zeira(1993)构建了一个教育投资决策的微观模型,从教育投资风险阻碍人力资本代际传递的角度解释了低收入家户持续性贫困的问题。模型分析得到了人力资本投资的成本、预期收益和风险、机会成本和风险水平之间的三条关系假说,我们利用中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)八个年度的数据通过非平衡面板的离散选择模型和分位数回归分析对影响个体接受教育进行人力资本投资意愿的因素进行了实证检验,结论如下:第一,分样本处理和Chow式检验的结果表明,在低收入家户中,个体进行人力资本投资的意愿与其收入水平正相关,这意味着越是贫穷的家户进行人力资本投资的意愿会越低;在高收入家户中,个体进行人力资本投资的意愿与其收入水平负相关,但关系较弱。同样,关键变量的虚拟变量模型和二次型回归的结果也印证了上述结论。第二,与通常的直观认识相悖,人力资本投资意愿与地区的经济发展水平之间并没有表现出显著的统计关系。在地区特征上,农村和城市之间并未表现出显著的差异;在省份的差异上,各省之间个体的人力资本投资意愿并未有明显的差异。本章的实证分析结果也从侧面说明了经济强省未必就是教育大省,学校匮乏、师源缺少地区的个体未必不愿意接受教育。第三,通过分位数回归分析发现,个体收入对于个体接受高中教育的分位数回归系数呈现先降后升的趋势,这说明了对于决定接受或不接受人力资本投资意愿特别强烈的个体,个体收入的变动对他们原来意愿的改变有很强的影响;处于中间意愿的个体,人力资本投资的预期收益和机会成本对其意愿改变的影响更大。
在第五章中,我们重点关注了家户脆弱性导致贫困陷阱的问题。脆弱性衡量了家户或个体在冲击后复原的能力,在遭受冲击后有的家户能够尽快复原,而有的家户却永久性致贫,因而陷入了贫困陷阱。本文基于VEP法提出了一种反向的脆弱性测度方法,用个人或家户在将来维持于某一返贫概率之上的最小福利水平来描述家户脆弱性。基于CHNS中2000、2004和2006共三年的调查数据为样本,以2009年的家户数据作为检验样本,本章分别计算了在水平为0.1、0.3、0.5、0.7和0.9基础上的家户脆弱性值,并根据不同时期、户主性别、所处地区和户主职业类型等分类考察了家户脆弱性的特征,我们主要发现:第一,家户的收入和其脆弱性之间的正向关系比较显著,但随着家户的收入水平上升,这些较高收入家户的脆弱性差异很大。这表明,贫穷的家户总是很脆弱,高收入家户有时也是脆弱的。第二,不同时间段和地区间的家户脆弱性程度有所区别。从时间趋势上来看,全国家户的整体脆弱性水平随着时间的推进都在改善,东部地区的家户脆弱性水平要好于中部和西部地区的家户,城市地区的家户的脆弱性水平要远好于农村地区的家户。第三,不同户主特征的家户的脆弱程度也有所差异。男性户主家庭的脆弱性水平略优于女性户主家庭,家中拥有老人和子女越多的家户会越脆弱,拥有青壮年越多的家户的脆弱性会改善。第四,户主职业类型对家户脆弱性程度影响不同。从事农业类的家户最弱、从事技术工人类的家户脆弱性水平居中,高级技术人员家户的脆弱性最强。为了考察不同因素对家户脆弱性差距及变动的定量影响,本文主要分析了家户脆弱性的变动和家户脆弱性的差距这两类分解问题。对于前者,我们选取了在2004年和2006年这两个时段间脆弱性发生恶化的家户为样本,通过分解成均值变动和方差变动进行分析发现,导致家户脆弱性发生恶化的原因既有均值或方差的单向变动,但是绝大多数是由两者同等幅度的变动导致的。对于后者,我们根据上、下1/3分位数线为标准选取脆弱性强弱不同的两组家户为样本,通过使用Oaxaca分解、Shapley分解和Fields分解法将两组变量之间的差异分解为各种不同要素对于造成家户脆弱性差异的贡献度。从分解结果中可以看出,家户压力方面的信息,即家户规模、家户支出和家庭负担导致了家户脆弱性的差距,其中家户支出是强弱脆弱性差距最重要的贡献因素,其Shapley分解贡献程度达到了73.10%!
在第六章中,本文试图通过货币模型中时间偏好和经济稳定性的分析重点考察异质性、非理性的个体对于宏观经济政策实施可能产生的影响。既有的实证结果表明个体的时间偏好和个人的收入水平密切相关,统计数据也表明富人更有耐心。贫困主体的“习惯形成”与“追赶效应”会使传统的“平滑消费理论”失效,因此异质性个体的行为可能会使政策实施的效果大打折扣。本文放松了传统的经济理论假设“经济人”是完全理性的,具有完备记忆、稳定的偏好的假设,并假定个体的时间偏好依赖于整个经济的收入、平均消费和货币量,运用动态法在一个货币管理机构采取利率反馈规则的货币模型中研究了具有社会属性的时间偏好是如何影响经济长期均衡处的稳定性的。结论是异质的时间偏好对于货币政策的实现效果起着重要作用,因而在制定经济政策时,弄清楚消费者的效用评价变化是有必要的,也是很重要的。
Poverty is one of the most important topics concerned in the process of development all the time. Breaking the low-level equilibrium and escaping from the poverty traps has always been a dream of humankind. Thousands of scholars paid great attention to this issue and made discussion and research related to it. Aiming to further explore the mechanism of poverty traps and the resulting changes associated with household welfare, this thesis focus on the research of human capital upgrade induced by technology and human capital transition under shock and risk, resulting with the impact of country's choice on technology selection as well as human capital accumulation and households'choice on access to their children's education as well as human capital transition. Based upon these two kinds of choice, we also try to analyze household's characteristics and factors of welfare and vulnerability resulted from the mechanism of poverty traps discussed above. Finally, we attempt to explore the impact of the heterogeneity of individuals on the effectiveness of implementation of the economic policy.
In the third chapter, we attempt to analyze the relationship among induced technology, human capital upgrade and development traps through a macroeconomic model. We consider that the technical level is demonstrated by technology users so that the human capital accumulation can be induced by technology upgrade. The model assumes that the level of human capital in developing countries is proceeding with the upgrade process of technical level, which means that the step by step human capital cumulation should be induced by step by step technology upgrade. Based upon this consideration, we define a class of non-smooth and periodic production function, where human capital is a concave function of the investment in education. Within each upgrade stage, the potential maximum level of human capital is the upper limit of technical level during that stage.Through the R&D investment and technology upgrade, sustained economic growth is driven by human capital accumulation. According two different types of human capital accumulation, we obtain two different types of economic growth, the sustained growth mode and trembling growth mode, which can explain the existence of low-level equilibrium trap in developing countries. Through numerical simulation we also consider about human capital accumulation induced by two extremes of technology upgrade, the mode of sustaining induced technology and the mode of trembling induced technology. Conclutions are that technology update by blindly learning and imitating in developing countries may not be able to help them to catch up with the leaders. Because the gap between current human capital in developing countries and potential upper limit of technology in developed countries is too huge and as a result, human capital upgrade threshold is too big to make it fall into the low-level equilibrium. In order to get rid of the traps, developing countries can take methods to improve the rate of human capital accumulation and to choose a more appropriate level of technology for human capital upgrade.
In the fourth chapter, we attempt to analyze the relationship among the risk, intergenerational human capital transition and poverty traps in a microeconomic model. Statistical results indicate that human capital accumulation is of great importance for a family to improve their persistent poverty. But in fact, compared with high-income families, low-income families are reluctant to allow their children to accept education. Based on Galor and Zeira (1993), we construct a microeconomic model to study the role of risk played in education decisions and explain the problem of persistent poverty in low-income families. Based upon the analysis of this model we get three hypotheses regarding the relationship among the cost of human capital investment, expected return and risk of human capital investment, opportunity cost and risk of human capital investment. By using eight years' survey data of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), we empirically test the hypotheses through unbalanced panel discrete choice model and quantile regression model. The main conclusions are summarized as follows. Firstly, results from sub-sample processing and Chow-test show that the aspiration of human capital investment is positive related to their income, which means that willingness of education will be lower in the poorer family, but the willingness of human capital investment in richer family is weakly negative related to their income. Similarly, the dummy variable model and quadratic regression based upon the key variable also confirm the conclusions above. Secondly, contrary to the common sense, there're not strong statistically significant relationships between the willingness of education and the regional economic development. There're no significant differences between the rural areas and urban areas, and also no significant differences among different provinces. Thirdly, quantile regression results show an inversed-U shape relationship between willingness of high school education and household's income, which means that the changes of household's income have a strong impact on their willingness to accept or not to accept the human capital investment, especially for those with strongest or weakest willingness to accept human capital investment. For those with average willingness to accept human capital investment, the expectation of benefits and the opportunity cost from human capital investment are the main power to impact their willingness.
In the fifth chapter, we focus on the issues that household vulnerability leads to poverty traps. Mostly poverty is transient for external shock, and this kind of poverty is not easy to identify, vulnerability is a key method to measure the recover ability of households under a shock. Based on the VEP method, we propose a reverse measure to calculate vulnerability, by which the vulnerability of a household is defined as the minimum level of welfare maintaining at a given probability of returning to poverty in the future. Based on a total of three years sample from CHNS survey in2000,2004and2006, we calculate households' vulnerability at the level of0.1,0.3,0.5,0.7and0.9, and examine the characteristics of household vulnerability according to different household characters, such as the gender of the head of household, their locations and their occupations. The main results are summarized as follows. Firstly, there is a significant positive relationship between household income and their vulnerability and the vulnerability of high income household differences a lot as their income rising, which suggests that low-income households are always very vulnerable but high-income households sometimes vulnerable. Secondly, the degree of household vulnerability in different periods and regions is quite different. The overall vulnerability of the whole country are improving as time expans, the vulnerability of the household in eastern area are better than those in central and western area and the vulnerability of the households in urban area are better than those in rural area. Thirdly, the vulnerability of the household with different households'characters also varies. The vulnerability of male-headed households is slightly better than female-headed households, the households with more elders and children are more vulnerable than those with younger adults. Forthly, vulnerability of household with different occupation also varies. Households living by agriculture are the most vulnerable and the least vulnerable households are those living by senior skill. In order to investigate the impact of different factors on households vulnerability, we've also analyzed two types of factor decomposition problem, the within change and the between change. For the former, we selecte the deteriorating households in two periods of2004and2006, and then decompose their vulnerability into mean changes and variance changes. The analysis shows that the main cause for the vulnerability deteriorating is from changes both in mean and variance, and with equal magnitude. For the latter, according to a selected sample divided by the upper and lower1/3quantile line, by using the methods of Oaxaca decomposition, Shapley decomposition and Fields decomposition, results show that the burden information of a household, such as the household's size, household's expenditure and household's structure are the main factors for households'vulnerability gap. Specifically, household expenditure is most important factor contributed to the vulnerability gap and its Shapley decomposition contribution is73.10%!
In the sixth chapter, since empirical results indicate that individual income is closely related to their time preference and the rich are more patient than the poor, we consider an infinite and continuous time model, based upon the analysis of Meng(2006) to check how the impatience affects the economic stability, by postulating that individual agents'time preference depends on the economy-wide total income, average consumption and money balance, which are social factors taken as external by individual agents. Within extended neoclassical one-sector optimal growth model, our focus on the average social level is to check its effect on the macroeconomic stability, mainly using dynamic methods. We assume that labor supply is inelastic and the role that physical capital plays in stabilizing the real side of the economy by ensuring uniqueness of equilibrium in alternative environments if the monetary authority follows interest-rate feedback rules. The analysis shows that with the socially determined individual time preference, the macroeconomic stability of the long run equilibrium can arise under a set of sufficient conditions which is derived in this context.
引文
2《中国扶贫开发报告》第二部分:中国贫困地区的特征与贫困标准。
3童星,林闽钢,我国农村贫困标准线研究,中国社会科学,1994年第3期。
15统计数据来自《中国农村监测报告2009》第9-10页。
1. 阿马蒂亚·森:《伦理学与经济学》,北京:商务印书馆,2000。
2. 阿马蒂亚·森:《贫困与饥荒——论权利与剥夺》,北京:商务印书馆,2001。
3. 阿马蒂亚·森:《简论人类发展的分析路径》,《马克思主义与现实》2004年第6期。
4. 蔡防,都阳:《中国地区经济增长的趋同与差异》,《经济研究》2000年第5期。
5. 陈立中:《转型时期我国多维度贫困测算及其分解》,《经济评论》2008年第5期。
6. 陈立中,张建华:《经济增长、收入分配与减贫进程间的动态联系——来自中国农村的经验分析》,《中国人口科学》2007年第1期。
7. 陈云松,范晓光:《社会学定量分析中的内生性问题——测估社会互动的因果效应研究综述》,《社会》2010年第4期。
8. 侯风云:《中国农村人力资本收益率研究》,《经济研究》,2004年第6期。
9. 郭剑雄:《人力资本、生育率与城乡收入差距的收敛》,《中国社会科学》,2005年第3期。
10. 胡海军,张卫东,向锦:《贸易开放度与我国农村贫困的联系的实证研究》,《国际贸易问题》2007年第8期。
11. 蒋萍,田成诗,尚红云:《人口健康与中国长期经济增长关系的实证研究》,《中国人口科学》2008年第5期。
12. 柯亨:《什么的平等?论福利、善和能力》,见:玛莎·努斯鲍姆,阿马蒂亚·森:《生活质量》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2008,p.11-34。
13. 李力行,吴晓瑜:《健康、教育和经济增长:理论及跨国证据》,《南开经济研究》2011年第1期。
14. 李石新,邹新月,郭新华:《贸易自由化与中国农村贫困的减少》,《中国软科学》2005年第10期。
15. 李文,李兴平,汪三贵:《农产品价格变化对贫困地区农户收入的影响》,《中国农村经济》2003年第12期。
16. 李丽,白雪梅:《国城乡家庭贫困脆弱性的影响因素分析—基于CHNS微观数据的实证研究》,《数量经济技术经济研究》2010年08期。
17. 林伯强:《中国的经济增长、贫困减少与政策选择》,《经济研究》2003年第12期。
18. 林毅夫,刘培林:《中国的经济发展战略与地区收入差距》,《经济研究》2003年3期。
19. 林毅夫:《后发优势与后发劣势》,《经济学(季刊)》2003年第4期。
20. 罗楚亮:《农村贫困的动态变化》,《经济研究》2010第5期。
21. 潘家华,魏后凯等主编:《中国城市发展报告NO.4——聚集民生》,2011,社会科学文献出版社。
22 齐良书:《收入、收入不均等与健康:城乡差异和职业地位的影响》,《经济研究》2006年第11期。
23. 钱雪亚、张小蒂:《农村人力资本积累及其收益特征》,《中国农村经济》,2000年第3期。
24. 尚卫平,姚智谋:《多维贫困测度方法研究》,《财经研究》2005年第12期。
25. 沈坤荣,马俊:《中国经济增长的“俱乐部收敛”特征及其成因研究》,《经济研究》2002年第1期。
26. 唐钧:《中国城市居民贫困线研究》,上海社会科学院出版社,1998。
27. 童星,林闽钢:《我国农村贫困标准线研究》,《中国社会科学》1994年第3期。
28. 万广华,A.F.Shorrocks:《收入差距的地区分解》,《世界经济文汇》2005年第3期。
29. 万广华,张茵:《收入增长与不平等对我国贫困的影响》,《经济研究》2006年第6期。
30. 万广华,张藕香:《贫困按要素分解:方法与例证》,《经济学季刊》2008年第3期。
31. 万广华,张茵:《中国沿海与内地贫困差异之解析:基于回归的分解方法》,《经济研究》,2008年第12期。
32. 王小林,S.Alkire:《中国多维贫困测量:估计和政策含义》,《中国农村经济》2009年第12期。
33. 王德文,张恺悌:《中国老年人口的生活状况与贫困发生率估计》,《中国人口科学》2005年第1期。
34. 温福星:《阶层线性模型的原理与应用》,北京:中国轻工业出版社,2009年。
35. 武阳丰:《中国的超重和肥胖:曾经消瘦的巨人如今肥胖成倍增长》,《英国医学杂志》中文版,2006年8月第9卷第4期。
36. 许吟隆:《扶贫政策必须考虑气候变化影响》,《中国经济报告》,2009年第4期。
37. 姚先国,张海峰:《教育、人力资本与地区经济差异》,《经济研究》2008年第5期。
38. 杨汝岱、姚洋:《有限赶超与经济增长》,《经济研究》2008年第8期。
39. 张车伟:《营养、健康与效率——来自中国贫困农村的证据》,《经济研究》2003年第1期。
40. 张建华:《贫困测度与政策评估——基于中国转型时期城镇贫困问题的研究》,北京:人民出版社,2010。
41. 张建华,陈立中:《总量贫困测度研究述评》,《经济学季刊》2006年第5期。
42. 张全红,张建华:《中国农村贫困变动:1981-2005——基于不同贫困线标准和指数的对比分析》,《统计研究》2010年第27卷第2期。
43. 赵耀辉:《中国农村劳动力流动及教育在其中的作用》,《经济研究》1997年第2期。
44. 中国国际扶贫中心课题组:《世界各国贫困标准研究》,《中国国际扶贫中心研究报告》2010年第1期。
45. 中国国家统计局:《中国统计摘要2011》,北京:中国统计出版社,2011。
46. 中国国家统计局农村社会经济调查司:《中国农村贫困监测报告2009》,北京:中国统计出版社,2009。
47. 中国国家统计局农村社会经济调查司:《中国农村贫困监测报告2010》,北京:中国统计出版社,2010。
48. 邹薇:《传统农业经济转型的路径选择:对中国农村的能力贫困和转型路径多样性的研究》,《世界经济》2005年第2期。
49. 邹薇,周浩:《中国省际增长差异的源泉的测算与分析(1978-2002)》,《管理世界》2007年第7期。
50. 邹薇,张芬:《农村地区收入差异与人力资本积累》,《中国社会科学》2006年第2期。
51. 邹薇,方迎风:《关于中国贫困的动态多维度研究》,《中国人口科学》2011年第6期。
52 邹薇,方迎风:《怎样测度贫困:从单维到多维》,《国外社会科学》2012年第2期。
1. Abel.A.,1990, Asset Prices under Habit Formation and Catching up with the Joneses,The American Economic Review,Vol 80(2):38-42.
2. Acemoglu,D. and S.Johnson,2007,Disease and development:The effect of life expectancy on economic growth,Journal of Political Economy, Vol 115(6):925-985.
3. Acemoglu,D.,2005,Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth,in Handbook of economic growth,Chapter 6.
4. Acemoglu,D.,S.Johnson, and J.A.Robinson,2002,Reversal of Fortune:Geography and institutions in the making of the modern world income distribution,The Quarterly Journal of Economics,Vol 117(4):1231-1294.
5. Adams,R.H.,2004,Economic growth,inequality and poverty:Estimating the growth elasticity of poverty, World Development,32(12):1989-2014.
6. Agenor,P.R.,2008,Health and infrastructure in a model of endogenous growth,Journal of Macroeconomics,30:1407-1422.
7. Agenor,P.R.,2011a,Public capital,health persistence and poverty traps/working paper, http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/dbs/faculty/Agenor-Health-Poverty-traps11.pdf.
8. Agenor,P.R.,2011b,Schooling and public capital in a model of endogenous growth, Economica,78:108-132.
9. Ahmad,E., and Y.Wang,1991,Inequaltiy and poverty in China:Institutional Change and Public Policy,1978 to 1988,The World bank Economic Review,Vol 5(2):231-257.
10. Alderman,H.,Hoddinott,J.,Kinsey,B.,2006,Long term consequences of early childhood malnutrition,Oxford Economic Papers,58:450-474.
11. Alexandre, Michel,2011, Endogenous categorization and group inequality, MPRA Paper No.33239, posted 08. September 2011, http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/33239/.
12. Alkire S.and M.Santos,2010,Acute multidimensional poverty:A new index for developing countries, OPHI Working paper, NO.38.
13. Alkire,S. and J.E.Foster,2011,Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement, Journal of Public Economics,Vol 95:476-487.
14. Alkire,S.,2008,Choosing Dimensions:The Capability Approach and Multidimensional Poverty, MPRA Working paper No.8862.
15. Alkire,S.,2010,The missing dimensions of poverty data: Introduction to the special issue,Oxford Development Studies,Vol 35:347-359.
16. Allison,R.A.and J.E.Foster,2004,Measuring health inequality using qualitative data, Journal of Health Eocnomics,23:505-524.
17. Alonso-Carrera.J.,J.Caballe and X.Raurich,2005,Growth,habit formation and catching-up with the Joneses, European Economic Review,49:1665-1691.
18. Anand,S. and A.Sen, Concepts of human development and poverty:A multidimensional perspective, In United Nations Development Programme, Poverty and human development:Human development papers 1997.New York:United Nations,1997,p 1-20.
19. Antman, F. and D. J. McKenzie,2005, Poverty traps and non-linear income dynamics with measurement error and individual heterogeneity, Policy Research Working Paper WPS3764, Washington DC:The World Bank.
20. Atkeson,A.,and Ogaki,M.1996.,Wealth-varying intemoral elasticities of substitution: Evidence from panel and aggregate data.,Journal of Monetary Economics,38(1): 507-534.
21. Atkinson,A.B.,1987,On the measurement of poverty,Econometrica,Vol 55(4):749-764.
22. Atkinson,A.B.,1995,On targeting social security:Theroy and Western experience with family benefits,in Van de Walle,D. and K.Nead, (eds),Public Spending and the Poor,John Hopkins University Press,Baltimore.
23. Atkinson,A.B.,and F.Bourguignon,1982, The comparison of Multidimensioned distributions of economic status,The Review of Economic studies,Vol 49(2):183-201.
24. Azariadis, C.,1996, The Economics of Poverty Traps Part One:Complete Markets,, Journal of Economic Growth, (1):1:449-486.
25. Azariadis, C.,2006, The theory of poverty traps:What have we learned?, in Bowles, Daulauf and Hoff, (eds.), Poverty Traps, Princeton University Press,2006.
26. Banerjee, A. and Newman, A.,1993, Occupational Choice and the Process of Development.,, Journal of Political Economy,,101(2):274-298.
27. Banerjee,A.V.,and E. Duflo,2003, Inequality and growth:what can the data say?Journal of Economic Growth,3:267-299.
28. Barro, R. and Sala-i-Martin, X. Economic Growth, Cambridge, MA:MIT Press,2003.
29. Barro,R. J.and Sala-i-Martin,X.1995. Economic Growth. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
30. Barro,R.,1990,Government spending in a single model of endogenous growth,Journal of Political Economy, Vol 98(5):S103-S125.
31. Barro,R.,2000, Inequaltiy and growth in a panel of countries,Journal of Economic Growth,5:5-32.
32. Barro,R.,2008, Inequality and growth revisited,ADB working paper, http://aric.adb.org /pdf/workingpaper/WP11 %20Inequality and Growth Revisited.pdf.
33. Barro,R.,and X.Sala-I-Martin,1992, Public finance in models of economic growth,The Review of Economic Studies,Vol 59(4):645-661.
34. Bartel,A.,and P.Taubman,1979,Health and labor market success:The role of various diseases,The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol 61(1):1-8.
35. Bates,D.M.,and J.C.Pinheiro,1998,Computational methods for multilevel modeling, Madison, WI:University of Wisconsin.
36. Baulch, B. and E. Masset,2003, Do monetary and non-monetary indicators tell the same story about chronic poverty? A study of Vietnam in the 1990s. World Development, vol.31,no.3, pp.441-454.
37. Baulch, B. and J. Hoddinott,2000, Economic mobility and poverty dynamics in developing countries, Journal of Development Studies, vol.36, no.6, pp.3-40.
38. Becker, G.S. and Mulligan, C.B.1997.,The Endogenous Determination of Time Preference., Quarterly Journal of Economics,112(3):729-758.
39. Beckerman.W.,1979, The impact of income maintenance programmes on poverty in Britain, Economic Journal,89,261-279.
40. Belhadj,B.,2011,A new fuzzy unidimensional poverty index from an information theory perspective,Empirical Economics,Vol 40(3):687-704.
41. Benabou R.,1996, Heterogeneity, stratification,and growth:Macroeconomic implications of community structure and school finance. American Economic Review,86 (3):584-609.
42. Besley T.,and S.Coate,1992,Workfare versus welfare:Incenitve arguments for work requirements in poverty-alleviation programs,The American Economic Review,Vol 82(1):249-261.
43. Besley.T and R.Kabur,1988, Food subsidies and poverty alleviation,The Economic Journal,Vol 98(392):701-719.
44. Besley.T and S.Coate,1995, The design of income maintenance programmes,The Review of Economic Studies, Vol 62(2):187-221.
45. Besley.T.,1990, Means testing versus universal provision in poverty alleviation programmes,Economica,Vol 57(225):119-129.
46. Betti,G. and VK.Verma,1999, Measuring the degree of poverty in a dynamic and comparative context: A multidimensional approach using fuzzy theory. Proceedings, ICCS-VI, Vol.11:289-301, Laorhe, Pakistan, August 27-31,1999.
47. Bhagwati,J.,and TN.Srinivasan,2002,Trade and poverty in the poor countries,The American Economic Review,Vol 92(2):180-183.
48. Bourguignon,F.,and S.R.Chakravarty,2003,The measurement of multidimensional poverty, Journal of Economic Inequality,Vd 1:25-49.
49. Bowles,S.,2006, Institutional poverty traps,In Bowels,S.,S.Durlauf and K.Hoff,(eds.), Poverty traps, Princeton University Press.
50. Brock,W.A.,and S.Durlauf,2007, Identification of binary choice models with social interations, Journal of Econometrics,140:52-75.
51. Bruce N.,and M.Waldman,1991,Transfers in kind:Why they can be efficient and nonpaternalistic,The American Economic Review,Vol 81(5):1345-1351.
52. Bruhn.J.,2009, Group Effect:Social Cohesion and Health Outcomes, Springer Publisher.
53. C Barrett, BM Swallow,2006, Fractal poverty traps, World Development.
54. C Barrett, BM Swallow,2005, Fractal Poverty Traps, BASIS CRSP Paper.
55. Barrett, C.B.,2005, Smallholder identities and social networks:The challenge of improving productivity and welfare. In C.B. Barrett (Ed.), The Social Economics of Poverty. London:Routledge.
56. Calvo,C.,2008, Vulnerability to multidimensional poverty:Peru,1998-2002, World Development,Vol 36(6):1011-1020.
57. Carroll,C.D. and Summers,J.H.1991.,Consumption Growth Parallels Income Grwoth Some New Evidence., In National Saving and Economic Performance.eds.B.Douglas Bernheim and John B Shoven,305-343. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
58. Cavalcanti,T.,and M.Correa,2011,Cash transfers to the poor and the labor market,working paper, http://131.111.165.101/facultv/cavalcanti/matchingBF.pdf.
59. Chakravarty,S.R.,2006,An axiomatic approach to multidimensional poverty measurement via fuzzy sets,In: Lemmi,A. and GBetti, (ed.),Fuzzy set approach to multidimensional poverty measurement, Springer, p.49-72.
60. Chambers, R. and G. Conway (1992) Sustainable rural livelihoods:practical concepts for the 21st century, Discussion Paper 296, Brighton:Institute of Development Studies.
61. Chaudhuri, S.,2002, Empirical methods for assessing household vulnerability to poverty, mimeo, New York:Columbia University.
62. Chaudhuri, S. and G. Datt,2001, Assessing household vulnerability to poverty:a methodology and estimates for the Philippines, mimeo, mimeo:World Bank.
63. Chaudhuri,S.,2003,Assessing vulnerability to poverty:concepts,empirical methods and illustrative examples, working paper, http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/ 97185/Keny 0304/Ke 0304/vulnerability-assessment.pdf.
64. Cheli,B.and A.Lemmi,1995,A totally fuzzy and relative approach to the multidimensional analysis of poverty, Economic Notes, Vol 24:115-134.
65. Chen,S. and M.Ravallion,2010,The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty,The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol 125 (4):1577-1625.
66. Colasanto,D.,A.Kapteyn, and J.Gaag,1984,Two subjective definitions of poverty: Results from the Wisconsin basic needs study,The Journal of Human Resources,Vol 19(1):127-138.
67. Cornia,G. and F.Stewart,1995, Food subsidies:Two errors of targeting,Chapter 4 in F.Stewart,Adjustment and poverty:Options and choices,London:Routledge,p.82-107.
68. Datt,G. and M.Ravallion,1992, Growth and redistribution components of changes in poverty measures:A decomposition with applications to Brazil and India in the 1980s,Journal of Development Economics,Vol 38(2):275-295.
69. Datt,G.,and H.Hoogeveen,2003, El Nino or El Peso?Crisis, poverty and income distribution in the Philippines, World Development,Vol 31(7):1103-1124.
70. Deaton,A., and Paxson,C.1994.,Intertemporal Choice and Consumption Inequality,, Journal of Political Economy,102(3):437-467.
71. Decancq K.and A.M.Lugo,2010, Weights in multidimensional indices of well-being, CES-Discussion Paper 10.06.
72. Decancq,K.and A.M.Lugo,2008,Setting weights in multidimensional indices of well-being, OPHI Working paper No.18.
73. Dercon, S.,2003a, Poverty traps and development: The equity-efficiency trade off revisited, mimeo, Oxford:University of Oxford, Department of Economics.
74. Dercon, S.,2003b, Risk and poverty:a selective review (or:can social protection reduce poverty?), mimeo, Oxford:Department of Economics, Oxford University.
75. Dercon, S.,2005b, Vulnerability:a micro perspective, Annual Bank Conference on Development Economies Paper, Amsterdam:The World Bank.
76. Dercon, S. (ed.),2005a, Insurance Against Poverty. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
77. Dercon,S. and J.Hoddinott,2004, Health,shocks,and poverty persistence,in S.Dercon, (eds.), Insurance against poverty,Oxford University Press,p.124-136.
78. Dercon,S.,J.Hoddinott, and T.Woldehanna,2005, Shocks and consumption in 15 Ethiopian Villages,1999-2004, Journal of African Economies,Vol 14(4):559-585.
79. Dessus,S.,S.Herrera, and R.Hoyos,2008, The impact of food inflation on urban poverty and its monetary cost:Some back-of-the-envelope calculations,Agricultural Economics, 39:417-429.
80. Dhanani,S. and I. Islam,2002, Poverty,vulnerability and social protection in a period of crisis:The case of Indonesia,World Development,Vol 30(7):1121-1231.
81. Diamond,P.A. and J.A. Mirrlees,1971b,Optimal taxation and public production Ⅱ:Tax rules,The American Economic Review,Vol 61(3):261-278.
82. Diamond,P.A.and J.A.Mirrlees,1971a,Optimal taxation and public production I: Production efficiency,The American Economic Review,Vol 61(1):8-27.
83. Dietz,R.,2001,Estimation of neighborhood effects in the social sciences,URAI Working paper No.00-03.
84. Doepke, M.,Growth Takeoffs.,2006, Working Paper, CCPR-021-06, UCLA.
85. Dollar,D.,2005, Globalization,poverty,and inequality since 1980,The World Bank Research Observer,Vol 20(2):145-175.
86. Dolmas, J.1996.,Endogenous Growth in Multisector Ramsey Models., International Economic Review,37(2):403-421.
87. Drugeon, J.P.1998.,A model with Endogenously Determined Cycles, Discounting and Growth,, Economic Theory,12(2):349-369.
88. Drugeon,J.P.1996.,Impatience and Long-run Growth., Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control,20(1):281-313.
89. Dupor, B.2000. Investment and Interest Rate Policy., Journal of Economic Theory, 98(1):85-113.
90. Durlauf S.,2001, The Memberships Theory of Poverty:The role of group affiliations in determining socioeconomic outcomes, in Understanding Poverty in America, S.Danziger and R.Haveman, (eds.), Cambridge:Harvard University Press.2001.
91. Durlauf,S.,2004, Neighborhood effect,in Henderson,V. and J.F.Thisse(eds). Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics,Vol 4:2173-2242.
92. Easterly,W. and S.Fischer,2001, Inflation and the poor,Journal of Money,Credit and Banking,Vol 33(2):160-178.
93. Elbers, C.; J. W. Gunning and B. Kinsey,2003, Growth and Risk, Discussion Paper TI 2003-068/2, Tinbergen: Tinbergen Institute.
94. Epstein, L. and J. Hynes.1983, The Rate of Time Preference and Dynastic Economic Analysis.Journal of Political,91(4):611—635.
95. Esposito,L.,2010, Multidimensional poverty:Restricted and unrestricted hierarchy among poverty dimensions, Journal of Applied Economics, Vol XⅢ(2):181-204.
96. Ettner,S.L.,1996, New evidence on the relationship between income and health,Journal of Health Economics,15:67-85.
97. Faik,J.,2011,A behaviouristic approach for measuring poverty:The decomposition approach -Empirical illustrations for Germany 1995-2009,SOEP working papers 383.
98. Foster.J,J.Greer, and E.Thorbecke,1984,A class of decomposable poverty measures, Econometrica, Vol 52:761-766.
99. Foster.J,J.Greer,and E.Thorbecke,2008,The Foster -Greer-horbecke Poverty Measures:25 Years Later, Journal of economic inequality, Vol 8:491-524.
100. Foster.J.,M.McGillivray and S.Seth,2009,Rank robustness of composite indices,OPHI Working paper No.26.
101. Fosu,A.K.,2009,Inequality and the impact of growth on poverty Comparative evidence for Sub-Saharan Africa,Journal of Development Studies, Vol 45(5):726-745.
102. Fosu,A.K.,2011,Growth,inequality,and poverty reduction in developing countries:recent global evidence,BWPI Working paper 147.
103. Gaiha,R.and K.Imai,2008,Measuring vulnerability and poverty:Estimates for rural India,WIDER Research Paper, No.2008/04.
104. Galor, O and Zeira, J.,1993, Income Distribution and Macroeconomics, Review of Economic Studies,60(1):35-52.
105. Galor, O.,A Two-Sector Overlapping-Generations Model:A Global Characterization of the Dynamical System., Econometric,1992,60:1351-1386.
106. Galor, O. and Weil, D.,2000, Population, Technology, and Growth:From Malthusian Stagnation to the Demographic Transition and beyond., American Economic Review,90 (4):806-828.
107. Galor,O.and D.Tsiddon,1997, The Distribution of Human Capital and Economic Growth, Journal of Economomic Growth,Vol 2(1):93-124.
108. Gelman,A.,2005,Multilevel(hierarchical)modeling:what it can and can't do,working paper, http://www.stat.columbia.edu/-gelman/research/unpublished/multi.pdf.
109. Gertler,P. and J.Gruber,2002, Insuring consumption against illness,The American Economic Review,Vol 92(1):51-69.
110. Gertz, G. and L. Chandy,2011,Two trends in global poverty, Brooking Institute, mimeo, May,2011.
111. Getachew,Y.Y.,2008,Public capital and income distribution:A marriage of Hicks & Newman-Read, UNU-Merit working paper series 2008-071.
112. Ghez,G.R., and Becker.G.S.1975. The Allocation of Time and Goods over the Life Cycle.New York:Columbia University Press.
113. Gornia,G.A. and F.Stewart,1995,Two errors of targeting, n Van de Walle,D. and K.Nead (eds),Public Spending and the Poor,John Hopkins University Press,Baltimore.
114. Graham,B.S.,2009,Endogenous neighborhood selection,the distribution of income and the identification of neighborhood effects,working paper, https://files.nyu.edu/bsg1/ public/BSG Neighborhood Sorting 02Jul09 Submitted.pdf.
115. Greedwood,J. and J.Boyan,1990,Financial development,growth,and the distribution of Income, Journal of Political Economy,98:1076-1107.
116. Grilli L. and C.Rampichini,2006, Model building issues in multilevel linear models with endogenous covariate.Working paper,Dipartimeto di Statistica,Universita di Firenze, Florence.
117. Hansen, G. and Prescott, E.,2002, Malthus to Solow, The American Economic Review, 92(4):1205-1217.
118. Harper,C.and R.Marcus,2003,Enduring poverty and the conditions of Childhood: Lifecourse and intergenerational poverty transmissions,World Development,Vol 31(3): 535-554.
119. Hausman, J.A.1979. Individual Discount Rates and The Purchase and Utilization of Energy-using Durables., Bell Journal of Economics,10(2):33-54.
120. Hoddinott,J. and A. Quisumbing,2003, Methods for microeconometric risk and vulnerability assessments,Social Protection Discussion Paper Series,No.0324.
121. Hoddinott,J. and B.Kinsey,2001,Child growth in the time of drought,Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics,Vol 63(4):409-436.
122. Hoff K.and A.Sen,2006, The kin system as a poverty trap, in Poverty traps, Bowles S., S.Durlauf and K.Hoff, eds.2006.
123. Hoff,K. and A.Sen,2005,Homeownership,Community interactions,and Segregation,The American Economic Review,Vol 95(4):1167-1189.
124. Honohan,P.,2004,Financial development,growth and poverty:How close are the links,in Charles Goodhart(ed.),Financail Development and Economic Growth:Explaining the links, London:Palgrave.
125. Hoyos,R. and D.Medvedev,2011,Poverty effects of higher food prices:A global perspective, Review of development economics,15(3):387-402.
126. Huettner, Frank and Marco Sunder,2012, Axiomatic arguments for decomposing goodness of fit according to Shapley and Owen values., Forthcoming in Electronic Journal of Statistics.
127. Islam,A. and Maitra,P.,2012,Health shocks and consumption smoothing in rural households:Does microcredit have a role to play?Journal of Development Economics,Vol 97(2012):232-243.
128. Ivanic,M.,W.Martin, and H.Zaman,2011b,Estimating the short-run poverty impacts of the 2010-11 surge in food price,Policy research working paper 5633,World Bank.
129. Jalan J. and M.Ravallion,1998,Transient poverty in postreform rural China,Journal of Comparative Economics,Vol 26(2):338-357.
130. Jalan J. and M.Ravallion,2002, Geographic poverty traps? A micro model of consumption growth in rural China, Journal of Applied Econometrics,17:329-346.
131. Jalan, J. and M. Ravallion,2005, Household Income Dynamics in Rural China, in S. Dercon(ed.) Insurance against poverty, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.107-123.
132. Jalan,J. and M.Ravallion,2004,Household income dynamics in rural China,in S.Dercon (eds.)Insurance against poverty,Oxford:Oxford University Press,p.107-123.
133. Jonathan Morduch,1994, Poverty and Vulnerability, The American Economic Review, vol.48, no.2,pp221-225.
134. Kabur,R. and M.J.Keen,and M. Tuomala,1994,Optimal non-linear income taxation for alleviation of imcome poverty,European Economic Review,38:1613-1632.
135. Kanbur.R.,M.Keen,and M.Tuomala,1994,Labor supply and targeting in poverty alleviation programs.The World Bank Economic Review.Vol 8(2):191-211.
136. Kiyotaki,N. and Moore,J.,Credit Chains., Journal of Political Economy,1997.
137. Knight J.,S.Li,Q.H. Deng,2010,Education and the poverty trap in Rural China:Closing the trap, Oxford Development Studies,4:1-24.
138. Kocherlakota,N.R.,1996,Implications of efficient risk sharing without commitment,The Review of Economic Studies,Vol 63(4):595-609.
139. Koopmans, T.1965. The Econometric Approach to Development Planning. Amsterdam: North Holland Press.
140. Krishnakumar,J.and P. Ballon,2008, Estimating basic capabilities:A structural equation model applied to Bolivia,World Development, Vol 36:992-1010.
141. Krugman, P.,1991, History versus Expectations, Quarterly Journal of Economics,106 (2):651-667.
142. Krugman, P.,1987, The Narrow Moving Band, the Dutch Disease, and the Economic Consequences of Mrs. Thatcher:Notes on Trade in the Presence of Dynamic Economies of Scale., Journal of Development Economics,27:41-55.
143. Krugman, P.,1981, Trade, Accumulation, and Uneven Development, Journal of Development Economics,8:149-161.
144. Lanjouw,P. and M.Ravallion,1999, Benefit incidence,public spending reforms,and the timing of program capture,The World Bank Economic Review, Vol 13(2):257-273.
145. Lawrance, E.C.1991, Poverty and the Rate of Time Preference:Evidence from the Panel Date., Journal of Political Economy,99(1):54-77.
146. Lee, I. H. and Lee, J.1998, A Theory of Economic Obsolescence., Journal of Industrial Economics,46(3):383-401.
147. Leibenstein,H.,1957, Economic backwardness and economic growth,New York:Wiley.
148. Lewis, W.A.,,Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor.,, Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies,1954:139-191.
149. Ligon,E. and L.Schechter,003,Measuring vulnerability,The Economic Journal,113:c95-c102.
150. Loayza,N.V., and C.Raddatz,2010,The composition of growth matters for poverty alleviation, Journal of Development Economics,93:137-151.
151. Lucas, R. and Stokey, N.1984.,Optimal Growth with Many Consumers., Journal of Economic Theory,32(1):139-171.
152. Lucas,R.E.,1988,On the mechanics of economic development,Journal of Monetary Economics,22:3-42.
153. Lucas,R.E.,2004,Life earnings and rural-urban migration,Journal of Political Economy, Vol 112(1),S29-S59.
154. Lung-fei Lee,2007,Identification and estimation of econometric models with group interactions, contextual factors and fixed effects,Journal of Econometrics,140:333-374.
155. Lustig N.,2011, Multidimensional indices of achievements and poverty:what do we gain and what do we lose? An introduction to JOEI Forum on multidimensional poverty. Journal of economic inequality.9:227-234.
156. Mankiw,G.,D.Romer and D.Weil,1992,A contribution to the empirics of economic growth, Quaterly Journal of Economics,107:407-439.
157. Manski C.,1993, Identification of endogenous social effects:the reflection problem. Review of Economic Studies,60:531-542.
158. Marcel, F, Rural poverty, risk and development. Oxford University,1999 http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=MXqmxGpgu00C&oi=fnd&pg= PR5&dq=risk++poverty&ots=AB1aHeFmPU&sig=xrIk_yQZnqwJfkM0u4c7psf8_L8#
159. Massoumi,E.,1986,The measurement and decomposition of multi-dimensional inequality, Econometrica,Vol 54(4):991-997.
160. Matsuyama, K.,Endogenous Inequality.,, Review of Economic Studies,2000,67: 743-759.
161. Matsuyama, K.,Financial Market Globalization, Symmetry-breaking, and Endogenous Inequality of Nations.,, Econometrica,2004,72:853-884.
162. Matsuyama, K. Increasing Returns, Industrialization, and Indeterminacy of Equilibrium., Quarterly Journal of Economics,1991,106(2):617-650.
163. Matsuyama,K.,2005,Poverty traps,in L.Blume and S.Durlauf (eds.).the New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics,2ed,Palgrave Macmillan,2005.
164. Mehlum, H., Moene, K and Torvik,R.,Parasites,, Poverty Traps, Bowles, Durlauf and Hoff (eds), Princeton: Princeton University Press,2006.
165. Meng, Q.L.2006. Impatience and Equilibrium Indeterminacy., Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control,30(12):2671-2692.
166. Mirrlees,J.A.1971.An Exploration in the Theory of Optimum Income Taxation.Review of Ecnomic Studies,38:175-208.
167. Montalvo,J.G. and M.Ravallion,2010,The pattern of growth and poverty reduction in China, Journal of Comparative Economics,38:2-16.
168. Murphy, K.; Sheleifer, A. and Vishny, R. Industrialization and the Big Push., Journal of Political Economy,1989,97 (5):1003-1026.
169. Murphy,K.M.,A.Shleifer, and R.W. Vishny,1989,Industrializtion and the big push, Journal of Political Economy, Vol 97(5):1003-1026.
170. Nelson,P.R.,1956,A theory of the low-level equilibrium trap in underdeveloped economies, American Economic Review,46:894-908.
171. Nguyen P.,D.Haughton,I.Hudson and J. Boland,2010,Multilvel Models and Small Area Estimation in the Context of Vietnam Living Standards Surveys,42emes Journees de Statistique,2010.
172. Njong,M.A. and P.Ningaye,2008,Characterizing weights in the measurement of multidimensional poverty:An application of data-driven approaches to Cameroonian data,OPHI working paper No.21.
173. Nurkse,R.,1953,Problems of capital formation in underdeveloped countries,New York: Oxford University Press.
174. Obstfeld, M.1990.,Intertermporal Dependence, Impatience, and Dynamics., Journal of Monetary Economics,26(1):45-75.
175. Ogaki, M. and Atkenson, A.1997.,Rate of Time Preference, Intertemporal Elasticity of Substitution, and Level of Wealth., Review of Economics and Statistics,79(4): 564-572.
176. Osnat Israeli, 2007, A Shapley-based decomposition of the R-Square of a linear regression., Journal of Economic Inequality, Volume 5, Number 2,199-212, DOI: 10.1007/s10888-006-9036-6.
177. Palivos, T.; Wang, P. and Zhang, J.1997.,On the Existence of Balanced Growth Equilibrium., International Economic Review,38(1):205-224.
178. Park.A.,S.G.Wang and G.B.Wu,2002,Regional poverty targeting in China,Journal of Public Economics,86:123-153.
179. Pestieau,P.and M.Racionero,2009,Optimal redistribution with unobservable disability: Welfarist versus non-welfarist socil objectives,European Economic Review,53:636-644.
180. Pirttila.J.and M.Tuomal,2004,Poverty alleviation and tax policy.European Economic Review,48:1075-1090.
181. Quah, D.T.,Empirics for Economic Growth and Convergence,. European economic review,1996,40(5):1353-1375.
182. Quah, D.T.,Galton's Fallacy and Tests of the Convergence Hypothesis.,, The Scandinavian Journal of Economics,1993,95:427-443.
183. Ramos X.and J.Silber,2005, On the application of efficiency analysis to the study of the dimensions of Human Development. Review of Income and Wealth.51(2):285-310.
184. Ranis, G. and Fei, J.,A Theory of Economic Development.,, The American Economic Review,1961,51(4):533-565.
185. Ravallion, M. (1988) Expected poverty under risk-induced welfare variability, Economic Journal, vol.98, no. December, pp.1171-1182.
186. Ravallion, M. and Q. Wodon (2000) Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural responses to enrollment subsidy, Economic Journal, vol.110, no.462, pp. C158-C175.
187. Ravallion,M.,2001,Grwoth,Inequality and Poverty:Looking beyond averages,World Development, Vol 29(11):1803-1815.
188. Ravallion,M.,2007,Inequality is bad for poor,In Jenkins.S. and J.Micklewright(eds.), Inequality and Poverty:Re-Examined,Oxford:Oxford University Press,p.37-61.
189. Ravallion,M.,2011, On multidimensional indices of poverty.Journal of Economic Inequality,9:235-248.
190. Ravallion,M.,S.Chen and P.Sangraula,2009,Dollar a day revisited,The World Bank Econmic Review,Vol 23 (2):163-184.
191. Ravi,S.and M. Engler,2009,Workfare in low income countires:An effective way to fight poverty?The case of NREGS in India,working paper, http://www.isid.ac.in/-pu/ conference/dec 09 conf/Papers/ShamikaRavi.pdf.
192. Rodriguez,F. and D.Rodrik,2001,Trade policy and economic growth:A skeptic's guide to the cross-national evidence,in B.S.Bernanke and K.Rogoff (eds.) NBER Macroeconomics Annual 2000,Vol 15,MIT press,p.261-338.
193. Romer,P.M.,1986,Increasing returns and long-run growth, Journal of Political Economy, 94:1002-1037.
194. Romer,P.M.,1990,Endogenous technological change,Journal of Political Economy,98, 71-102.
195. Rosenstein-Rodan, P.,Problems of Industrialisation of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe., Economic Journal,1943,53:202-211.
196. Rosenstein-Rodan,P.N.,1943,Problems of industrialization of eastern and south-eastern Europe,Economic Journal,53:202-211.
197. Rosenzweig,M.,and K.Wolpin,1993,Credit market contraints,consumption smoothing, and the accumulation of durable assets in low-income countries:Investments in bullocks in India,Journal of Political Economy,101(2):223-244.
198. Sachs,J.D.and A.M.Warner,1997,Fundamental sources of long-run growth,The American Economic Review,Vol 87(2):184-188.
199. Sala-i-Martin,2006,The world distribution of income:Falling poverty and...convergence, period, The Quarterly Journal of economics,Vol 121(2):351-297.
200. Sen A.K.,1985, Commodities and Capabilities.Amsterdam:North Holland.
201. Sen,A.K.,1976,Poverty:An ordinal approach to measurement,Econometrica, Vol 44:219-231.
202. Sen,A.K.,1979,Issues in the measurement of poverty,The Scandinavian Journal of Economics,Vol 81(2):285-307.
203. Sen,A.K.,1999,Development as freedom. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
204. SenA.K.,1987,The Standard of Living,With contributions by J.Muellbauer,R.Kanbur, K.Hart and B.Williams,Edited by G.Hawthorn,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
205. Sharkey,P.and F.Elwert,2011,The legacy of disadvantage:Multigenerational neighbor- hood effects on cognitive ability,American Journal of Sociology,Vol 116(6):1934-1981.
206. Shorrocks A.F.,1982,Inequality decomposition by factor components,Econometrica, Vol 50:193-211.
207. Solow, R.,Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function.,, Review of Economics and Statistics,1957.
208. Solow,R.,1956,A contribution to the theory of economic growth,Quaterly Journal of Economics,70:65-94.
209. Suryahadi, A. and S. Sumarto,2001, The chronic poor, the transient poor, and the vulnerable in Indonesia before and after the crisis, Working Paper, Jakarta:SMERU.
210. Swan,T.,1956,Economic growth and capital accumulation,Economic Record,32:334-361.
211. Townsend,P.,1962,The meaning of poverty,The British Journal of Sociology,Vol 13(3):210-227.
212. Xie, D.Y.,1994, Divergence in Economic Performance:Transitional Dynamics with Multiple Equilibria, Journal of Economic Theory,63(1):97-112.
213. Zou Wei and Liu Yong,2010, Skilled Labor, Economic Transition and Income Differences:A Dynamic Approach, Annals of Economics and Finance (SSCI),11(2): 246-267.
214. Zou Wei and Zhou Hao,2007, The Classification of Growth Clubs and Convergence: Evidence from panel data in China (1981-2004), China and World Economy (SSCI), Vol15(5):91-106.
215. Zou Wei, Zhuang Ziyin, Zhou Hao and Song Hairong,2008, Measuring divergence in provincial growth in China: 1981-2004, Journal of Economic Policy Reform (SSCI), Vol 11(3):215-227.