摘要
氯离子侵蚀是导致混凝土结构发生耐久性破坏的最主要原因,对氯离子扩散性能的研究是目前国内外研究的重点问题。本文基于使用环境,针对长期暴露混凝土结构的氯离子侵入性能,在以下几个方面做了探索性和创新性研究工作:
(1)对青岛市现存钢筋混凝土结构的耐久性状况进行了调查,对暴露环境和混凝土结构耐久性能进行了分析。结果表明,引起钢筋混凝土结构耐久性失效的原因存在于结构设计、施工及维护的各个环节。在结构使用过程中,未进行合理维护所造成的结构耐久性降低是不容忽视的。
(2)通过对典型工程钻芯取样和实验室化学分析,对氯离子环境下混凝土结构由于材料因素和环境因素导致的耐久性不足的原因进行了分析和讨论。研究表明,实际暴露混凝土中氯离子的分布存在不同形态;表面氯离子浓度差异较大,由氯离子浓度曲线外推得到的理论上的表面氯离子浓度比较稳定;局部环境对氯离子侵入有十分显著的影响;经过二十多年时间暴露的普通硅酸盐水泥混凝土的氯离子扩散系数在10~(-13)m~2/s数量级;氯离子的扩散性能在混凝土表层和内部存在明显差异。
(3)海洋环境下,混凝土碳化十分有限,混凝土的碳化区以部分碳化区为主。处在浪溅区和潮汐区长期暴露的混凝土结构,混凝土表层发生碳化的深度不超过12mm,虽然化学分析表明存在钙的溶出,但混凝土碳化和表层盐结晶堵塞了混凝土表面区域的毛细孔,使混凝土表层的孔隙率减小,对氯离子的侵入有阻碍作用。
(4)采用氯离子分布曲线法、自然浸泡法、RCM法、自然扩散室等方法对实际混凝土结构和实验室混凝土的氯离子扩散性能进行了评价。RCM法得到的扩散系数比较高,扩散室法与自然浸泡试验的结果比较接近和适中,氯离子分布曲线拟合法得到的扩散系数最低,与RCM法得到的结果相差在十倍以上,且低于对比试验和海边暴露试验的数值。在海洋浪溅区,长期暴露的普通硅酸盐水泥混凝土氯离子扩散系数的衰减指数α为0.525,该指数不仅受水化作用控制,而且受环境因素的影响。
(5)以不同试验方法获得的氯离子扩散系数对混凝土结构进行寿命预测,得到的结果有显著差异;实验室混凝土和实际暴露混凝土的氯离子扩散系数衰减指数差异明显;对氯离子扩散系数的衰减进行评价时,不仅应考虑水化因子还应考虑环境因子;氯离子扩散在空间上可划分为对流区和扩散区进行评价。
(6)探讨了氯离子环境下混凝土结构耐久寿命影响因素的概率分布特征,分析了耐久可靠性的发展规律。建立了考虑氯离子扩散系数空间差异性和时间依赖性的基于可靠度的寿命预测模型。通过具体的算例和与其它模型的比较,阐述了这一方法的有效性和实用性。
本文通过实验室试验、现场暴露试验和长期暴露的混凝土结构钻芯取样对氯离子在混凝土结构中的扩散性能进行了评价;研究了不同因素对氯离子侵入的影响;建立了实验室耐久性指标与实际暴露结构性能指标之间的定量关系;建立了考虑氯离子扩散系数时间、空间依赖性的基于可靠度的寿命预测模型,为氯离子环境下混凝土结构的耐久性设计提供了理论基础和具体方法。
Chloride is the most important cause which induces damage to the durability of concrete structures.Chloride diffusion properties are currently the focus of the investigation at home and abroad.This paper carries on the exploratory and innovative research work in the following areas:
1) The of durability of existing reinforced concrete structures in Qingdao City were investigated,the exposure condition and the durable performance of concrete structures were analyzed.Results show that factors inducing durability degradation for reinforced concrete structures exist in design,construction and maintenance.At the process of using construction,the fact that durability of the structure will be are reduced by scarce of reasonable maintenance should not be ignored.
2) The insufficient of durability for concrete structure under chloride environment induced by material and environmental factors were analyzed and discussed.Results show thatthe forms of chloride profiles are different in actual exposure conditions,the surface chloride concentration of concrete in theory obtained by extrapolation from chloride profile are relatively stable,local environment has significant impact on chloride ingress,the chloride diffusion coefficient is in the order of 10~(-13)m~2/s magnitude to normal portland cement concrete after more than two decades exposure,significant differences of the diffusion property exist in inner and outer region of concrete.
3) Under marine environment,the carbonation is very limited and the carbonation is dominated by incomplete carbonation zone.Depth of carbonation in the surface layer of concrete is not exceeding 12mm to concrete construction in splash and tide zone. Although chemical analysis shows that leaching of calcium exist,salt crystallization and carbonation block the pores in surface area of concrete induce the decreasing of porosity and reduce the chloride ingress.
4) The diffusion properties of actual concrete structure and laboratory concrete were evaluated by methods of chloride profiles fitting,natural immersion,RCM and diffusion sell.Diffusion coefficient obtained by RCM is the highest,and that of natural immersion and natural diffusion sell are moderate and similar;the value of diffusion coefficient obtained by fitting is the lowest,which is ten times less than the result of RCM method and lower than which obtained by laboratory test and exposure test at seashore.The attenuation index of chloride diffusion coefficient is 0.525 to ordinary portland cement concrete after long-term exposure in splash zone
5) Significant differences exist in life prediction with chloride diffusion coefficient obtained from different methods.Obvious differences exist in attenuation index of diffusion coefficient to concrete in laboratory and exposed conditions.Not only the hydration but also environmental factors should be considered when evaluate changes of the chloride diffusion coefficient.Differences of diffusion coefficient in space should be considered and concrete should be divided into diffusion zone and convection zone. Characteristics of probability distribution of influencing factors to durable life of concrete structures under chloride environment were explored.The law of development of durable reliability was analyzed.The life prediction model under chloride ion environment was set up in considering differences in space and time-dependent of the chloride ion diffusion coefficient.Effectiveness and practicality of this method was expounded through specific example and comparing with other models.
The diffuse performance of chloride ions in concrete structures were evaluated though laboratory test,exposing test and cores drilling from concrete after long time exposing. The quantitative relationship between durability indexes in laboratory and performance indexes of actual exposure construction was established.Life prediction model based on reliability was set up in considering time and spatial dependence of the chloride ion diffusion coefficient.Theoretical basis and specific methods for the durability design and construction of concrete structure under chloride environment were provided.
引文
[1.1]张巨松,曾尤.建筑混凝土工程历史、现状及发展趋势[J].建筑技术开发,2001,28(3):49-50
[1.2]冯乃谦.日本混凝土耐久性问题的历史发展及其对策[J].混凝土,2003,(7):14-17
[1.3]夏宁,孝民,任青文.混凝土结构耐久性研究现状[J].水利水电科技进展,2005,25(4):65-70
[1.4]Basheer L,Basheer P A M,Long A E.Influence of coarse aggregate on the Permeation,durability and the microstructure characteristics of ordinary Portland cement concrete[J].Construction and Building Materials,2005,19(9):682-690
[1.5]洪定海.混凝土中钢筋的腐蚀与保护[M].北京:中国铁道出版社,1998
[1.6]Kilaerski,W.R.Failure of Reinforcement Concrete Structures due to Corrosion[J].Material Performance,1997,80(3)
[1.7]Mehta P K.Durability-Critical issues of the Future[J].Concrete International,1997,19(7):27-33
[1.8]洪乃丰.混凝土中钢筋腐蚀与防护技术(1)—钢筋腐蚀危害与对混凝土的破坏作用[J].工业建筑,1998(8)
[1.9]Dhir R K,Jones M R,Ahmed H E H,etal.Rapid estimation of chloride diffusion Coefficient in concrete[J].Magazine of concrete research,1990,42:177-185
[1.10]Rodriguez P,Ramirez E,Bonzalez J.Methods for studying corrosion in reinforced concrete[J].Magazine of concrete research,1994,46:81-90.
[1.11]Costa A,Appleton J.Case studies of concrete deterioration in a marine environment in Portugal[J].Cement and Concrete Composite,2002,24:167-179
[1.12]Al-Bahar S,Attiogbe E K,Kamal H.Investigation of corrosion damage in a reinforced concrete structure in Kuwait[J].ACI Materials Journal,1998,95(3):226-231
[1.13]Novokshchenov V.Deterioration of reinforced Concrete in the marine industrial environment of the Arabian Gulf-A case study[J].Material and Structures,1995,28(181):392-400
[1.14]卢木,王蹼信,卢金勇.混凝土中钢筋锈蚀的研究现状[J].混凝土,1999(3):37-41
[1.15]金伟良,赵羽习.混凝土结构耐久性[M].北京:科学出版社,2002
[1.16]张文忠,马文田.海洋环境混凝土结构中钢筋的腐蚀机理和防护实践[J].华南理工大学学报(自然科学版),1999,27(11):92-97
[1.17]孙江安.海水侵蚀混凝土构筑物的作用机理和几点认识[J].混凝土,1998,(6):41-44
[1.18]Al-Amoudi OSB,Rasheeduzzafar,Maslehuddin M.Influence of sulfate ions on chloride-induced reinforcement Corrosion in Portland and blended cement concretes[J].Cement Concrete and Aggregates,1994,16(1):3-11
[1.19]Wei Sun,Ru Mu.Effete of chloride salt,freeze-thaw cycling and externally applied load on the Performance of the concrete[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2002, 32:1859-1864
[1.20]洪乃丰.混凝土中钢筋锈蚀与防护技术(3)-氯盐与钢筋锈蚀破坏[J].工业建筑,1999,29(10):60-63
[1.21]Montemor M F,Simoes A M P,Ferreira M G S.Chloride-induced corrosion on reinforcing steel:from the fundamentals to the monitoring techniques[J].Cement and Concrete Composites,2003,25:491:502
[1.22]Dehwah H A F Austin S A,Masiehuddin M.Chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion in blended cement concrete exposed to chloride-sulphate environments[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,2002,54(5):355-364
[1.23]Kassir M K,Ghosn M.Chloride-induced corrosion of reinforced concrete bridge decks[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2002,32(1):139-143
[1.24]Ampadu K O,Torii K.Chloride ingress and steel corrosion in cement mortars incorporating low-quality fly ashes[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2002,32(6):893-901
[1.25]Bildcrbcck Lr D W,Durability of structures in marine environment recent Butch research[J].Indian Concrete Journal,1988,62(2)
[1.26]刘志勇等.基于氯离子渗透的海工混凝土寿命预测模型进展[J].工业建筑,2004.6(36):61-64
[1.27]金伟良,赵羽习.混凝土结构耐久性[M].北京:科学出版社,2002:55-60
[1.28]Chatterji S.On the application of Fick's Second Law to chloride migration through Portland cement concrete[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1995,25:299-303
[1.29]DuraCrete.Statistical Quantification of the Variables in the Limit State Functions.Document BE95-1347/R9,The European Union-Brite Euram Ⅲ[R],Contract BRPR-CT95-0132,Project BE95-1374,CUR,Gouda,2000
[1.30]Bentz E,Evans C,Thomas M.Choloride diffusion modeling for marine exposed concretes[A].in:C L Page,P Bamforth.and J W Figg(eds).Proceedings,Fourth SCI Conference on Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction,1996:136-145
[1.31]Onyejekwe O,Reddy N.A numerical approach to the study of chloride ion penetration into concrete[J],Magazine of Concrete Research,2000,52(4):243-250
[1.32]Nagesh M,Bishwajit,Bhattacharjee.Modelling of chloride diffusion in concrete and determination of diffusion coefficients[J],American Concrete Institute Materials Journal,1998,25(2):113-120
[1.33]Roelfstra P,Bijin J,Salet T.Modeling chloride penetration into ageing concrete[A],in:R Dhir,M Jones(eds).Proceedings,Concrete Repair,Rehabilitation and Protection,London,E&FN Spon,1996:245-255
[1.34]Seatta A,Scotta R,Vitaliani R.Analysis of chloride diffusion into partially saturated concreted concrete[J].American Concrete Institute Materials Journal,1993,90(5):441-451
[1.35]孙伟,余红发.混凝土结构工程的耐久性与寿命研究进展.土建结构工程的安全性与耐久性.2001
[1.36]余红发,孙伟,麻海燕等.盐湖地区钢筋混凝土结构使用寿命的预测模型及其应用[J].东南大学学报,2002,32(4):638-642
[1.37]Clear K C.Time-to-corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete slabs[A].Performance After 830Daily Salt Applications(3)[R].Report No.FHWA/RD-76/70.Washington,D C:Federal Highway Administration,1976,59
[1.38]Bamforth P.Definition of exposure classes for chloride contaminated environments[A].in:Page C L,Bamforth P,Figg J W(eds).Proceedings,Fourth SCI Conference on Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction,1996:176-190
[1.39]Helland S.Assessment and prediction of service life of marine structures.A tool for performance-based requirements? CEN TC104/Duranet workshop,Design of Durability of Concrete,Berlin,1999:64-75
[1.40]Berke N,Hicks M.Predicting chloride profiles[A].in:Concrete,Proceedings,Corrosion 93[C].National Association of Corrosion Engineers Annual Conference,Houston,1993:341/1-341/15
[1.41]Siemes T,Polder R,de Vries H.Design of concrete structures for durability[J].Heron,1998,43(4):227-244
[1.42]Polder R,Hug A.Penetration of chloride from de-icing salt into concrete from a 30-year old bridge[J].Heron,2000,45(2):109-124
[1.43]Maage M,Helland S,Poulson E,Vennesland φ,Carlsen J.Service life prediction of existing concrete structures exposed to marine environment[J].American Concrete Institute Materials Journal,1996,93(6):602-608
[1.44]Breitenbucher R,Gehlan C,Schiessl P,van den Hoonaard J,Siemes T.Service life design for the Western Scheldt Tunnel[A],CEN TC104/Duranet Workshop,Design of Durability of Concrete[C],Berlin,1999:76-87
[1.45]Gehlan C,Ludwig H M.Compliance Testing for Probabilistic Design Purposes[R].Brite-Euram Project No.BE95-1347,1999,R8
[1.46]Tuuti C.Crossion of steel in concrete[R].CBI forskning research,Swedish cement and concrete research institute,Institute of technology,Stockholm,1982
[1.47]Sandberg P,Luping T.A Field Study of the Penetration of Chlorides and Other Ions into a High Quality Concrete Marine Bridge Column[A].In:Durability of Concrete,3rd international conference on the Durability of Concrete[C].Nice,France,1994:557-572
[1.48]Luping T,Joost Gulikers.On the mathematics of time-dependent apparent chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2007,37(4):589-595
[1.49]耿欧,袁迎曙.钢筋混凝土耐久性人工气候加速退化试验的相关性研究[J].混凝土,2004(1):29-31
[1.50]巴恒静,张武满,邓宏卫.评价高性能混凝土耐久性综合指标-抗氯离子渗透性及其研究现状[J].混凝土,2005,(9):18-32.
[1.51]NTBuild443.Concrete,Hardened:Accelerated chloride penetration[S].1995
[1.52]DuraCrete.Rapid Chloride Migration Method of Concrete[R].Compliance Testing for probabilistic Design purposes.The European Uinon-Brite EuRam Ⅲ,March,1999
[1.53]海港工程混凝土结构防腐蚀技术规范.北京:人民交通出版社,2000
[1.54]Tang LuPing,Nilsson L O.Rapid Determination of the chloride diffusivity in concrete by applying an electric field[J].ACI Materials journal,1992,89(1):49-53
[1.55]NTBuild492,Concrete,Motar and Cement Based Repair Materials:Chloride Diffusion Coefficient from Migration Cell Experiments[S],1997-11
[1.56]EI-Belbol S M,Buenfeld N R.Accelerated chloride ion diffusion test[A].Material Research Society Symposium proceedings[C],1989:203-205
[1.57]Whiting D.Rapid Measurement of the chloride Permeability of concrete[J].Public Roads,1981,45(3):101-112
[1.58]刘斯凤.氯离子扩散测试方法演变和理论研究背景[J].混凝土,2002(10):21-24
[1.59]路新瀛,王晓睿,张华新.ASTM C1202实验方法浅析[J].工业建筑,2004,34(4):89-91
[1.60]Lu Xinying.Application of the Nernst-Einstein equation to concrete[J].Cement and concrete Research,1997,27(2):293-302
[1.61]赵铁军.高性能混凝土的渗透性研究[博士学位论文].北京:清华大学土木工程系,1997.4:47-50
[1.62]万小梅.用交流电测量混凝土的渗透性[硕士学位论文].青岛:青岛建筑工程学院土木工程系,2002.3:42-50
[1.63]Feldman R F,Chan G W,Brousseau R J and Tumidajski P J.Investigation of the rapid chloride permeability test[J].ACI Materials Journal,1994,91(2):246-255
[1.64]牛全林,冯乃谦,李崇智.影响混凝土Cl-导电量诸因素的分析[J].混凝土,2004(1):32-35
[1.65]王胜年,黄君哲,潘德强.海港工程混凝土耐久性设计与寿命预测[A].沿海地区混凝土结构耐久性及其设计方法[C],北京:人民交通出版社,2004
[1.66]史美伦,张雄,吴科如.混凝土中氯离子渗透性测定的电化学方法[J].硅酸盐通报,1998,(6):55-59
[1.67]蒋林华,李娟.混凝土抗氯离子渗透性试验方法比较研究[J].河海大学学报(自然科学版),2004,32(1):55-58
[1.68]吴丽君,邓德华,曾志,原通鹏.RCM法测试混凝土氯离子渗透扩散性[J].混凝土,2006,(1):100-103
[1.69]屠柳青,张国志,夏卫华,刘秉京.抗氯盐污染高性能混凝土及评价方法研究[J].混凝土,2004,(2):33-35
[1.70]吴朝晖,李跃明,于伟忠.试件获取方法对RCM混凝土氯离子扩散试验结果的影响[J].工业建筑,2007,37(9):89-92
[1.71]杨进波,Folker H.WITTMANN,赵铁军,阎培渝.混凝土氯离子扩散系数试验研究[J].建筑材料学报,2007,10(2):223-229
[1.72]冯乃谦,邢锋.高性能混凝土的氯离子渗透性和导电量[J].混凝土,2001,(11):3-7
[1.73]Berke N S,Hicks M C.Predicting Chloride Profile in Concrete[J],Corrosion Engineering,1994,32:234-239
[1.74]冷发光,冯乃谦.高性能混凝土渗透性和耐久性及评价方法研究[J].低温建筑技术,2000,82(4):14-16
[1.75]广州四航工程技术研究院中港建材重点实验室等,抗盐污染高性能混凝土配制成套技术研究总报告[R].2002,8
[1.76]蒋林华.试验方法对混凝土抗氯离子渗透扩散性的影响[J].混凝土,2001,121(11):8-11
[1.77]Andrade C,Castellote M,Alonso C,etal.Non-Steady-State Chloride Diffusion Coefficients Obtained from Migration and Natural Diffusion Tests.PartⅠ:Comparison Between Several Methods of Calculation[J].Materials and Structures,2000,33(1):21-28
[1.78]Clear K C,Harrigan E T.Sampling and Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete[R].Federal Highway Administration,FHWA-RD-77-85,August 1977
[1.79]Climent M A,De Vera G,Viqueira E.Bit Shape Geometric Considerations When Sampling by Dry Drilling for Obtaining Chloride Profiles in Concrete[J].Materials and Structures,2001,34(3):150-154
[1.80]Bentz D P,Xiuping F.Time-Dependent Diffusivities:Possible Misinterpretation due to Spatial Dependence[A].Andrade C,Kropp J eds.in:Second International RILEM Workshop on Testing and Modeling the Chloride Ingress into Concrete[C].Paris,France,2000:225-233
[1.81]Nokken M,Boddy A,Hooton R D etal.Time dependent diffusion in concrete-three laboratory studies[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2006,31(1):200-207
[1.82]Castro P,De Rincon O T,Pazini E J.Interpretation of Chloride Profiles From Concrete Exposed to Tropical Environments[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2001,31(4):529-537
[1.83]Higgins D D.The Effect of Some Test Variables on Chloride Profiles[A].RILEM International Conference.Nillsson L O,Ollivier J P eds.Chloride Penetration into Concrete[C].Paris,1995:234-242
[1.84]Yungming S,Tapeng C,Mingte L.Kirchhoff transformation analysis for determining time/depth dependent chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete[J],Journal of Materials Science,2008,43(4):1429-1437
[1.85]Vedalakshmi R,Renugha Devi R,Bosco Emmanuel etal.Determination of diffusion coefficient of chloride in concrete:an electrochemical impedance spectroscopic approach[J].Materials and Structures,2008,41(7):1315-1326
[1.86]赵平.浅议影响海工混凝土耐久性的因素[J].港口工程,1997,(4):11-16
[2.1]耿欧,袁迎曙.钢筋混凝土耐久性人工气候加速退化试验的相关性研究[J].混凝土,2004(1):29-31
[2.2]Jin Weiliang,Li Qingfang.Study on Durability Zonation standard of concrete structural design[A].Durability of Reinforced Concrete on the Combined Mechanical Climatic Loads[C].Qingdao:2005
[2.3]李家康,董攀.混凝土结构中的钢筋腐蚀分析[J].工业建筑,1998,28(1):12-15
[2.4]范宏,田砾,赵铁军.某栈桥的建造、维修历史及其耐久性状况[J].水运工程,2006,(9):16-19
[2.5]Matsushima M,Tsutsumi T,Seki H and Matsui K.A Study of the Application of Reliability Theory to the Design of Concrete Cover[J].Magazine of Concrete Research.1998,50(1):5-16
[2.6]洪定海.盐污染混凝土结构钢筋腐蚀破坏的局部修复[J].建筑材料学报,1998(2):164-169
[2.7]RILEM 124-SRC.Draft Recommendation of Repair Strategies for Concrete Structures Damaged by Reinforcement Corrosion[J].Materials and Structures,1994,27:415-436
[2.8]洪定海.混凝土中钢筋的腐蚀与保护[M].北京:中国铁道出版社,1998:17-20.
[2.9]樊云昌,曹兴国等.混凝土中钢筋腐蚀的防护与修复[M].北京:中国铁道出版社,2001:32-48.
[2.10]廉慧珍.水泥标准修订后对混凝土质量的影响[A].工程结构的安全性与耐久性技术论坛组织委员会.土建结构工程的安全性与耐久性[C].北京:清华大学,2001:402-407
[2.11]中华人民共和国国家标准:混凝土结构设计规范(GBJ 10-89)[S].中国建筑工业出版社,北京,1989
[2.12]李田,刘西拉.混凝土结构耐久性分析与设计[M].北京:科学出版社,1999
[3.1]Andrade C,Castellote M,Alonso C,etal.Non-Steady-State Chloride Diffusion Coefficients Obtained from Migration and Natural Diffusion Tests.PartⅠ:Comparison Between Several Methods of Calculation[J].Materials and Structures,2000,33:21-28
[3.2]管学茂,孙国文,王玲,姚燕.高性能水泥基材料结合外渗氯离子能力的测试方法对比[J].混凝土,2005,193(11):36-39
[3.3]Arya C,Newman J B.An assessment of four method of determining the free chloride[J].Materials and Structre,1990,23:319-330
[3.4]Hope B B,Page J A,Poland J S.The determination of the chloride content of concrete[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1985,15:863-870
[3.5]Bijin J,Blast furnace slag Cement for durable marine structures[R].Stichting BetonPrisma,Netherlands,1998:15-20.
[3.6]卢木,王濮信等.混凝土中钢筋锈蚀的研究现状[J].混凝土,2000,(2):37-41
[3.7]Arya C,Buenfeld N R,Newman J B.Assessment of Simple Methods of Determining The Free Chloride Ion Content of Concrete[J].Materials and Structures,1990,23:319-330
[3.8]Clear K C,Harrigan E T.Sampling and Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete[R].Federal Highway Administration,FHWA-RD-77-85,August 1977
[3.9]Climent M A,De Vera G,Viqueira E.Bit Shape Geometric Considerations When Sampling by Dry Drilling for Obtaining Chloride Profiles in Concrete[J].Materials and Structures,2001,34:150-154
[3.10]Lindvall A.Environmental Actions and Response-Reinforced Concrete Structures Exposed in Road and Marine Environments[D].G(o|¨)teberg,Sweden:Chalmers University of Technology,2001
[3.11]Castro P,De Rincon O T,Pazini E J.Interpretation of Chloride Profiles From Concrete Exposed to Tropical Enviroments[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2001,31:529-537
[3.12]金伟良,赵羽习.混凝土结构耐久性[M].北京:科学出版社,2002:55-60
[3.13]刘志勇,孙伟,扬鼎谊等.基于氯离子渗透的海工混凝土寿命预测模型进展[J].工业建筑,34(6):61-64
[3.14]Helland S.Assessment and Prediction of Service Life of Marine Structures.A Tool for Performance-Based Requirements?CEN TC104/Duranet Workshop,Design of Durability of Concrete,Berlin,1999:64-75
[3.15]Amey S L,Johnson D A,Miltenberger M A,etal.Predicting the service life of concrete marine structure:an environmental methodology[J].ACI Materials Structural Journal,1998,95(2):205-214.
[3.16]Bamforth P.Definition of Exposure Classes for Chloride Contaminated Environments.In:Page C L,Bamforth P,Figg J W.Proceedings,Fourth SCI Conference on Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction,1996:176-190
[3.17]Bamforth,P B.The derivation of input data for modeling chloride ingress from eight -year U K coastal exposure trials[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1999,51(2):87-96
[3.18]Liu Y,Weyers R E.Modeling the dynamic corrosion process in chloride contaminated concrete structures[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1998,28(3):365-379
[3.19]Vu K A T,Stewart M G.Structural reliability of concrete bridges including improved chloride-induced corrosion models[J],Structural Safety,2000,22(4):313-333
[3.20]Thomas M,Bentz E.Life-365 computer program for predicting the service life and life-cycle costs of reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides[M].St.Paul:Cortec Corporation,2001
[3.21]DuraCrete.General Guidelines for Durability Design and Redesign[S].The European Union-Brite Euram Ⅲ.Document BE95-1347/R 15,2000
[3.22]范宏,赵铁军,徐红波.码头混凝土中的氯离子侵入研究[J].水运工程,2006(4):49-54
[3.23]Ann K Y,Ahn J H,Ryou J S.The importance of chloride content at the concrete surface in assessing the time to corrosion of steel in concrete structures[J].Construction and building materials,2009,23(1):239-245
[3.24]Maage M,Helland S,Poulson E,etal.Service Life Prediction of Existing Concrete Structures Exposed to Marine Environment[J].American Concrete Institute Materials Journal,1996,93(6):602-608
[4.1]Vladim(?)r(?)ivica.Corrosion of reinforced induced by environment containing chloride and carbon dioxide[J].Bull.Mater.Sic.2003,26(6):605-608
[4.2]Papaakis V G,Vayenas C G,Fardis M N.Physical and chemical characteristics affecting the durability of concrete[J].ACI Materials Journal,1991,88(4):186-196
[4.3]Padadakis V G,Vayenas C G.Experimental investigation and mathematical modelling of the concrete carbonation problem[J].Chemical Engineering Science,1991,40:1333-1338
[4.4]张誉,蒋利学等著.混凝土结构耐久性概论[M].上海:上海科学技术出版社,2003,42-49
[4.5]Padadakis V G,Vayenas C G,Fardis M N.Fundamental modelling and experimental investigation of concrete carbonation[J].ACI Materials Journal,1991,88:363-373
[4.6]牛荻涛,陈亦奇,于澎.混凝土结构的碳化模式与碳化寿命分析[J].西安建筑科技大学学报,1995,27(4):365-369
[4.7]Babushkin V I,Matveyev G M,Mchedlov-Petrosyan O P.Thermodynamics of Silicates[M].Springer-Verlag,1985:276-281
[4.8]耐久性专题研究组.钢筋混凝土保护层厚度取值的研究[J].建筑结构,1982(3):61-64
[4.9]Parrott L J.A Study of carbonation-induced corrosion[J].Magazine of concrete research,1994(46):23-28
[4.10]周君亮,刘农,许冠绍.混凝土抗吸化侵蚀安全使用年数快速测定法[J].江苏水利,2000(3):18-20
[4.11]Houst Y F,Wittmann F H.Depth profiles of carbonates formed during natural carbonation[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2002(32):1924-1930
[4.12]鄂飞等.碳化反应区对混凝土碳化规律的影响[J].工业建筑,1999,29(1):12-16
[4.13]徐善华,牛荻涛,王庆霖.大气环境条件下混凝土中钢筋的锈蚀fJ].建筑技术,2003(4):267-269
[4.14]#12
[4.15]Martys N S,Survey of Concrete Transport Properties and their Measurement[R],U.S.Department of Commerce Technology Administration,National Institute of Standards and Technology,Gaithersburg,MD,February 1995
[4.16]解松善.水泥复合材料中界面粘结的研究[J].硅酸盐学报,1983,11(4):489
[4.17]Dnnays B,Gerard B,Jacpues G.Contribution to Formation Mechanism of the Transition Zone Between Rock-Cement Paste[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1993,23(2):335-346
[4.18]Mindess S,Diamond S.A Device for Direct Observation of Cracking of Cement Paste and Mortar Under Compressive Loading Within A Scanning Electron Microscope[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1982,12(5):569-576
[4.19]刘元湛,杨培怡,张承翼等.水泥浆体—集料界面的粘结强度[J].硅酸盐学报,1988(4):289
[4.20]Mohammed T U,Hamada H,Yamaji T.Concrete after 30 years exposure-PartⅢ:Chloride ingress and corrosion of steel bars[J].ACI Material Journal,2004,101(1):13-18.
[4.21]Taywood Engineering Ltd.Condition Audit of Reinforced Concrete Piers and Review of Concrete Design for the Marine Environment Executive Summary[R].Oct.1996
[4.22]范子彦.碳化混凝土的抗压强度[硕士学位论文].上海:同济大学土木学院,1997
[4.23]柳俊哲.混凝土碳化研究与进展(1)-碳化机理及碳化程度评价[J].混凝土,2005,(11):10-13
[4.24]Carde C,Francois R.Effect of the leaching of calcium hydroxide from cement paste on the mechanical and physical properties[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1997,27(4):539-550
[4.25]Carde C,Francois R,Torrenti J M.Leaching of both calcium hydroxide and C-S-H from cement paste:Modeling the mechanical behavior[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1996,26(8):1257-1268
[4.26]Marchand J,Pleau R,Gagne R.Deterioration of concrete due to freezing and thawing[A].in:Materials Science of Concrete Ⅳ[C].eds,Skalny J and Mindess S.American Ceramic Society.Westerville,OH,1995:283-354
[4.27]吴中伟.高性能混凝土[M].北京:中国铁道出版社,1999
[4.28]Sandberg P,Tang L.A Field.Study of the Penetration of Chlorides and Other Ions into a High Quality Concrete Marine Bridge Column[A].In:Durability of Concrete,3rd international conference on the Durability of Concrete[C].Nice,France,1994:557-572
[4.29]Lunk P.Kapillares Eindringen von Wasser und Salzl(o|¨)sungen in Beton[M].Aedificatio Publishers,1997
[4.30]Lunk P.Penetration of Water and Salt Solutions into Concrete by Capillary Suction[J].Restoration of Buildings and Monuments,1998,(4):399-422
[4.31]Anstice D J,Page C L,Page M M.The pore solution phase of carbonated cement pastes[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2004,35:377-383
[4.32]Broomfield J P.Corrosion of steel in concrete[M].London,E&FN Spon,1992:28-30
[4.33]Tuutti K.Corrosion of steel in concrete,CBI,Research Report 4,Stockholm,Sweden,1982:82-84
[4.34]Hong F,Tiejun Z,Wittmann F H.Carbonation and chloride profiles of reinforced concrete after 26years of exposure[A].In:international conference on pozzolan,concrete and geopolymer [C].Thailand:Khon Kaen University Press,2006:167-179
[4.35]方璟,梅国兴,陆采荣.碳化对混凝土性能影响的研究[J].水利水电技术,1996,(2):58-64
[4.36]Nagala V T,Page C L.Effects of carbonation on pore structure and diffusional properties of hydrated cement pastes[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1997,27(7):995-1007
[4.37]赵铁军.李淑进.碳化对混凝土渗透性及孔隙率的影响[J].工业建筑.2003,33(1):46-48
[4.38]Claisse P A,Shaaban I G.Permeability and pore volume of carbonated concrete[J].ACI Materials Journal.1999.96(3/:378-381
[4.39]柳俊哲.混凝土碳化研究与进展(3)-碳化机理及碳化程度评价[J].混凝土,2006,(1):51-54
[4.40]李乃珍,鑫国萱,刘兰计等.抗海水水泥对高浓度SO4~(-2)、Mg~(+2)、Cl~-的耐腐蚀性能及其机理[J],中国建材科技,1998(5)
[4.41]李乃珍,鑫国萱,雷亚光等.高耐腐蚀、高抗海水水泥混凝土的研究[J].中国建材科技,1999(2)
[4.42]李乃珍,于计祥,鑫国萱,抗海水水泥及其混凝土[J].中国建材科技,2001(1)
[4.43]马保国,彭观良,陈友治等.海洋环境对钢筋混凝土结构的腐蚀[J].河南建材,2001(1)
[4.44]周新刚.混凝土结构的耐久性与损伤防治[M].中国建材工业出版社,北京,1999
[5.1]EI-Belbol S M,Buenfeld N R.Accelerated chloride ion diffusion test[A].Material Research Society Symposium proceedings[C],1989,137:203-205
[5.2]Whiting D.Rapid Measurement of the chloride Permeability of concrete[J].Public Roads,1981,45(3):101-112
[5.3]AASHTO Designation.Standard Method of Test for Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete[S].T277-83
[5.4]ASTM C1202.Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration[S].1991
[5.5]Tang L,Nilsson L-O.Rapid Determination of Chloride Diffusivity of Concrete by Applying Electric Field[J].ACI Materials Journal,1992,89(1):49-53
[5.6]Sandberg P,Tang L.Study of the influence of textile-form method of chloride permeability in the concrete surface[R].Internal report(in Swedish),Department of Building Materials,Lund/Chalmers University of Technology,1993
[5.7]Tang L,Chloride penetration into a 37-year-old concrete structure in Esbierg harbor[R].Internal Report,Department of Building Materials,Chalmers University of Technology,1993
[5.8]NT Build 355,Concrete,Mortar and Cement Based Repair Materials:Chloride Diffusion Coefficient from Migration Cell Experiments[S].1997-11
[5.9]NT Build 492.Concrete,Mortar and Cement Based Repair Materials:Chloride Migration Coefficient from Non-Steady-State Migration Cell Experiments[S].1999-11
[5.10]Tang L.Recommended procedure for determination of chloride diffusivity by using CTH rapid method[R].Internal Report,Department of Building Materials,Chalmers University of Technology,1994
[5.11]Tang L.Electrically accelerated methods for determining chloride diffusivity in concrete-current development[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1996,48,(176):173-179
[5.12]Frederiksen J M.APM 302—Danish method for determining the speed of chloride penetration in concrete(in Danish)[S].Dask Beton(Danish Concrete),1992,(2) 22-27
[5.13]Cabrera J G Lynsdale C J.A new gas permeameter for measuring the permeability of mortar and concrete[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1988,40(144):177-182
[5.14]山东省工程建设标准《混凝士结构耐久性设计规程》(DBJ14-S6-2005).山东省建设厅发布,2005年12月1日山东省内实施
[5.15]GLASS G K,BUENFELD N R.Theoretical assessment of the steady state diffusion cell test[J].Journal of materials science,1998,33(21):5111-5118
[5.16]祝永年,沈威,陈志源译.混凝土的结构、性能与材料.上海,同济大学出版社,1991:40-42
[5.17]Buenfeld N R Zhang J Z.Chloride diffusion though surface-treated motor specimens[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1998,28(5):665-674
[5.18]Tanaka H.Enhancement of durability of concrete structures by surface treatment[J].Concrete Journal,2003,41(8):66-70
[5.19]钟世云,陈志源,龚宇辰,林江.表面处理水泥砂浆试样的氯离子扩散系数[J].建筑材料学报,2000(1):53-58
[5.20]Standard Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration,(T259-80)[S].American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,Washington D C,U S A.1904
[5.21]Standard Method for Sampling and Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials,(T260-94)[S].American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,Washington D C,U S A,1994
[5.22]Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride,(T277-93)[S].American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,Washington D C,U S A,1983
[5.23]Nordtest Method:Accelerated Chloride Penetration into Hardened Concrete[S].Nordtest,Espoo,Finland,Proj.11,1995:54-94
[5.24]Christopher Hall.Barrier Performance of Concrete:A Review of Fluid Transport Theory[J].Materials and Structures,1994,27:291-306
[5.25]Kelham S A.A water absorption test for concrete[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1988,40(143):106-110
[5.26]Hall C.Water sorptivity of mortars and concrete—a review[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1989,41(147):51-61
[5.27]Atzeni L,Massidda,Sanna U.Capillary absorption of water in hardened cement pastes treated with silicic esters or alkylalk oxysiloxane[J].Magazine of Concrete Research,1993,45(162):11-15
[5.28]赵铁军.混凝土渗透性.北京:科学出版社,2006
[5.29]Gerdes A,Wittmann F H.Surface Protection Systems Providing Highly-Resistence for concrete Structure[J].International Magazine for Restoration of Buildings,1997:515-534
[5.30]徐强.东海大桥结构混凝土耐久性策略[J].上海建设科技,2003,(3):47-48,55
[5.31]Maage M,Helland S,Poulson E,Vennesland φ,Carlsen J.Service life prediction of existing concrete structures exposed to marine environment[J].American Concrete Institute Materials Journal,1996,93(6):602-608
[5.32]Sandberg P.A field study of the penetration of chloride and other ions into a high-quality concrete marine bridge[A].The Third CANMET/ACI international conference on durability of concrete[C].Nice,France,1994
[6.1]马亚丽,张爱林.基于规定可靠指标的混凝土结构氯离子侵蚀耐久寿命预测[J].土木工程学报,2006,39(2):36-41
[6.2]赵尚传,贡金鑫,水金锋.氯离子环境下既有钢筋混凝土桥梁耐久性的概率分析[J].公路交通科技,2006,23(7):82-86
[6.3]Chatterji S.On the Application of Fick's Second Law to Chloride Migration Through Portland Cement Concrete[J].Cement and Concrete Research,1995,25(2):299-303
[6.4]Vedalakshmi R,Renugha Devi R,Bosco Emmanuel etal.Determination of diffusion coefficient of chloride in concrete:An electrochemical impedance spectroscopic approach[J].Materials and Structures,2008,41(7):1315-1326
[6.5]LIGHTCON.Service Life Models:Instructions on methodology and application of models for the prediction of the residual service life for classified environmental loads and types of structures in Europe[R].Life Cycle Management of Concrete Infrastructures for Improved Sustainability.2003
[6.6]Trevor J K.Impact of Specification Changes on Chloride Induced Corrosion Service Life of Virginia Bridge Decks,Thesis in Civil and Environmental Engineering[R].Virginia:Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,2001
[6.7]Finn EMarine chlorides—A probabilistic approach to derive provision for EN 206—1[R]//Service Life Design of Concrete Structures-From Theory to Standardization.Norway:3 Duranet Workshop,2001
[6.8]赵国藩.工程结构可靠性理论与应用[M].大连:大连理工大学出版社,1996
[6.9]张宝兰,卫淑珊.华南海港钢筋混凝土暴露十年试验[J].水运工程,1999(3):6-13
[6.10]Ceb.Comit6 Euro-International du B(?)ton:Durable Concrete Structures CEB Design Guide Second Edition 1989[A].Lausanne:Comit(?) Euro-Intemational du B(?)ton -CEB- In:Bulletin d'Information[C],No.182,1989
[6.11]Glass G K,Buenfeld N R.The presentation of the chloride threshold level for corrosion of steel in concrete[J].Corrosion science,1997,39(5):1001-1013
[6.12]Alonsoa C,Andradea C,Castellotea M,Castrob P.Chloride threshold values to depassivate reinforcing bars embedded in a standardized OPC mortar[J].Cement and Concrete Research,2000,30:1047-1055
[6.13]Hausmann D A.Steel corrosion in concrete.How does it occur?[J].Materials Protection,1967,6(11):19-23
[6.14]Stewart M G.Optimization of durability design specifications for RC structures[A].Structures Congress:Advanced Technology in Structural Engineering[C].Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,ASCE,section 21,chapter 2,May,2000
[6.15]Breit W,Schieβ1 P.Investigations on the threshold value of the critical chloride content[A].In:Durability of Concrete.Proceedings of the 4th CANMET/ACI International Conference[C],Sydney,Australia.Aachen Technische hoschule,1997:349-362
[6.16]Izquierdo D,Alonso C,Andrade C,Castellote M.Potential static determination of chloride threshold values for rebar deactivation:Experiment and statistical study[J].Electrochimica Acta,2004,49:2731-2739
[6.17]Frederiksen J M.Testing and Modeling the Chloride Ingress into Concrete[A].in:Second international Workshop of Modeling Chloride ingress in Concrete[C],Paris,2000:397
[6.18]Alonso C,Castellote M,Andrade C.Chloride threshold dependence of pitting potential of reinforcements[J].Electrochimica Acta,2002,47(21):3469-3481
[6.19]Hussain S E,Ahmad S,AI-Gahtani,Rasheeduzzafar.Chloride Threshold for Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete[J].ACI Materials Journal,1996,94(6):534-538
[6.20]Stewart M G,Vu K A TStructural reliability of concrete bridges including improved chloride-induced corrosion models[J].Structural Safety,2000,22(4):313-333
[6.21]Enright M P,Frangopol D P.Probabilistic analysis of resistance degradation of reinforced concrete bridge beams under corrosion[J].Eng Struc,1998,20(11):960-971
[6.22]Duracrete.Quantification of the environmental parameters in the carbonation and chloride ingress models[R].Document BE95-1347/TG4/C,The European Union-Brite EuRam Ⅲ,Contrct BRPR-CT95-0132,Project BE95-1347,Prepared at Chalmers University of Technology,G(?)teborg,1999
[6.23]Siemes A J M,Rostam S.Durable Safety and Serviceability-A Performance Based Design Format[R].IABSE Report 74:Proceedings IABSE Colloquium'Basis of Design and Actions on Structures-Background and Application of Euro code 1'.Delft,1996:41-50
[6.24]张爱林,赵国藩,王光远.多种情况下的结构可靠度[J].大连理工大学学报,1996,36(6):771-775
[6.25]张爱林,赵国藩,王光远.现役结构模糊动态可靠度评估实用方法[J].应用基础与工程科学学报,1998,6(1):83-90
[6.26]DuraCrete.Statistical Quantification of the Variables in the Limit State Functions.Document BE95-1347/R9,The European Union-Brite Euram Ⅲ[R],Contract BRPR-CT95-0132,Project BE95-1374,CUR,Gouda,2000
[6.27]Thomas M,Bentz E.Life-365 computer program for predicting the service life and life-cycle costs of reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides[M].St.Paul:Cortec Corporation,2001