摘要
英国是世界上工业化和城市化的先发国家,在城市发展的动力、模式、结构和类型等方面都具有“内源先发性”的特征。作为英国城市体系和城市化进程的组成部分,小城镇的经济和社会结构在工业化时期发生了深刻的变化。从历史发展的角度来看,英国的城市化进程和工业化进程近乎同步进行,由此引发了英国城市和乡村经济社会的双重变革,主要表现为人口由乡村向城市的流动,即所谓的人口城市化进程。“英国”一词在不同的历史时期具有不同的疆域范围,本文侧重于经济格局和发展水平的角度,所指的英国主要包括英格兰和威尔士。
虽然小城镇在英国城市化进程中获得了前所未有的发展,但从前后对比的角度来看,工业化时期小城镇在英国的城市体系中的比重和地位却呈现下降趋势。作为联系城市和乡村的纽带,小城镇受城乡背景和区域格局变动的影响,在工业化时期的发展呈现“数量绝对上升、地位相对下降”的特征,即以19世纪20年代为界,前期的小城镇在数量、规模和地位等方面都有显著的提高,而后期的小城镇虽然在数量和人口方面继续保持一定的增长,但在城市体系中的地位却呈现明显的下降趋势。从功能分类的角度来看,工业化时期保持繁荣的小城镇多是依托于新兴的工商业、交通运输业和文化休闲业,而停滞和衰落的小城镇则多处于传统的农业区。无论是小城镇的规模分化还是功能分化,都是以大城市为主导的城市体系和城市功能扩展的结果,小城镇在城市发展格局中越来越处于从属和边缘的地位。
工商业、交通运输业和休闲业小城镇是工业化时期英国小城镇功能分化的结果,同时也是资本主义市场经济条件下生产专业化和大城市城市功能扩张的产物。工商业的繁荣是工业化进程最直接的体现,工业小城镇和商业小城镇正是在工商业繁荣的背景下出现的。从特征上来看,工商业小城镇都是以纺织品生产贸易为主,与乡村地区关系密切,城市规模和产业领域逐渐扩大;从发展趋势来看,工商业小城镇在三类小城镇中比重最大,同时面临的竞争压力也最大。交通小城镇是在交通运输业繁荣发展的基础上出现的,按出现的先后顺序主要包括公路小城镇、港口小城镇和铁路小城镇,三者的数量依次递减。虽然从公路马车到水上船舶再到铁路机车,交通越发便利,但小城镇从其中获得的发展推动力却越来越少。休闲小城镇的兴起依赖于工业化和城市化的双重作用,主要包括以矿泉资源为特色的矿泉休闲小城镇和以海洋风光为特色的滨海休闲小城镇。贵族和中产阶层是休闲小城镇的主要推动力量和参与者,随后扩大到工人阶级。矿泉休闲小城镇和滨海休闲小城镇大致呈现次第而兴的态势,这两种休闲小城镇的发展反映了工业化时期英国文化休闲产业化和多元化的趋势。
总体来看,小城镇作为工业化时期英国城市体系的组成部分,数量和规模都获得了提高,小城镇的空间布局和整个城市体系的发展趋向基本一致。在资本主义生产专业化和城市功能多元化的推动下,小城镇主要形成了工商业、交通业和休闲业三种专业类型。专业型小城镇的出现既是资本主义生产专业化在城市发展方面的体现,也是大城市的城市功能向外扩张和多元发展的产物。
As the first county in world's process of industrialization and urbanization, Britain has the character of endogenous advance on urban development's power, pattern, form and type. Considered as the composing part of British urbanization and urbanizing development, small towns' economic and social structure had profound changes in the period of industrialization. In the historical development's point of view, urbanization and industrialization process went along nearly in-phase, which led into economy and society's double transformation of British urban and rural world. This change was mainly represented as population flow from countryside to urban world, i.e. the process of urbanization on population. Britain has different boundaries during different periods, from the angle of economic patterns and developmental level, Britain in this dissertation was mainly including England and Wales.
Although small towns obtained unprecedented development in the process of urbanization, in the angle of contrastive former and latter, the proportion and status of small towns in urban system were digressive in the era of British industrialization. As the ligament between urban and rural world, small towns were affected by urban-rural background regional situation, and presented the character of 'absolute rise in quantity and relative fall in status'. Take 1920s as the boundary, small towns' quantity, size and status had distinct increase in the prophase, the upper small towns kept definite increase on quantity and population, but their position in urban system showed evidently downtrend. In the viewpoint of classified function, most of the flourishing small towns in industrial period were supported by newly-rising industrial and commercial industry, transportation industry and cultural leisure industry, while those stagnating and declining small towns were mostly located in traditional farm belt. Whether the differentiation of size or function of small towns, both was the result of urban system and urban function expanding led by large cities, small towns in urban developing situation were more and more dependent and marginal.
Small towns depending on industry and commerce, transportation and recreation made up of British small towns' three dominating patterns, which were the result of functional differentiation and manufacturing specializing as well as large cities' functional expanding on the condition of capitalist marketing economy. Industrial and commercial prosperity was the most direct embodiment of industrialization, small industrial and commercial towns were just arisen in the background of industrial and commercial flourishing. On the characteristic of them, small industrial and commercial towns both were mainly in the field of textile manufacture and trade, had intimate connection with countryside. In the point of development trend, the small industrial and commercial towns' proportion was largest, and the two kind of small towns were facing the most serious competing pressure. Small towns supported by transporting industry developed on the base of carrying trades' flourishing, which mainly included small turnpike towns, small port towns and small rail towns according to early or late ranking. The three kinds of small transporting towns were descending in turn. From turnpike carriages to watercrafts to rail locomotives, transporting was more and more convenient, but the impetus of small towns received from that was less and less. Small recreational towns' rise depended on the effect of industrialization and urbanization, mainly included small spa towns featured by mineral springs and small coastal towns featured by sea's scene. Nobility and middle class were the major impetus and actor of small recreational towns, subsequently the working class participated. Small spa tows and small coastal towns were approximately prosperous in turn; the two kinds of small recreational towns reflected industrial and multivariant trend of British cultural recreation in the Industrial Age.
Overall, as the component part of British urban system in the era of industrialization, small towns' quantity and size both were increasing, the spatial distribution of small towns was essentially identical with the whole urban system. By the promotion of capitalist manufacturing specialization and urban function's multielement, small towns principally made up of three special patterns, i.e. small industrial and commercial towns, small transporting towns and small recreational towns. Specializing types of small towns were not only the embodiment of capitalist productive specialization about urban development, but also the result of urban function's extensive expanding and multiple development of large cities.
引文
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[2]这些因素主要体现在:爱尔兰与英格兰和威尔士隔爱尔兰海相望,在早期海上交通不便的条件下,这必然导致爱尔兰无法像威尔士那样就近接受英格兰的辐射带动,所以在发展程度方面比较落后;从气候条件方面来看,爱尔兰经常遭受自然灾害的影响,农业歉收甚至绝收的现象时有发生:从英国政府的方面来看,因为担心爱尔兰独立,所以政府一直没有放松对当地的控制。苏格兰南部地区虽然在地理上与英格兰北部地区相接,但其境内尤其是中北部地区多山地的地形结构对于经济发展十分不利,这也导致在地广人稀的背景下人口和城市主要集中在南部一隅;此外寒冷的气候也不利于农作物的生长,所以苏格兰地区的农业生产和英格兰、威尔士地区都截然不同。这些因素的综合导致了爱尔兰、苏格兰和英格兰、威尔士的发展存在着明显的差异性。
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[1]有学者认为城市化的概念是1867年由西班牙工程师A.Serda最先提出,也有学者认为是马克思和恩格斯最先提出。
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[1]诺瑟姆把一个国家和地区的城市人口占总人口比重的变化过程概括为一条稍被拉平的S型曲线,并把城市化过程分成3个阶段,即低于25%的城市化水平较低阶段、高于75%的城市化后期阶段和介于二肯之间的加速阶段,当城市化经过人口向城市迅速集中的加速阶段后,进入后期阶段的城市化增长又趋缓慢甚至停滞。(周一星:《城市地理学》,商务印书馆,1997年,第88页)
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[4]这两本著作都是莱斯特大学城市史研究中心由克拉克教授负责的小城镇研究项目的成果:Clark P.,K.and J.Hosking,Population Estimates of English Small Towns 1550-1851,Leicester University Press,1993.Clark,P.,Small Towns in Early Modern Europe,Cambridge University Press,1995.
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[1]这方面的成果主要有淮北煤炭师范学院谢丰斋教授的“12-14世纪英国小城镇兴起初探”,《世界历史》,2002年第4期;杭州师范大学张卫良教授的“前工业化时期英国中小城镇的发展”,《杭州师范学院学报》(社会科学版),2005年第6期。天津师范大学刘景华教授的《城市转型与英国的勃兴》(中国纺织出版社,1994年)一书中的部分章节涉及前工业化时期中小城镇的变迁,认为中小城镇、地方城市和伦敦由低到高构成了当时英国的城市体系。
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[1]张毓峰:《城市区域空间组织研究:基于劳动空间分工的视角》,西南财经大学出版社,2008年,第15-17页。
[1]Dodgshon,R.A.and R.A.Butlin,A Historical Geography of England and Wales,Academic Press,1990,p.401.
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[3]首位城市是国家或区域城市体系中人口规模最大的城市,在城市地理学中,常常用“首位商=首位城市的人口/次位城市的人口”来判断城市体系的首位集中度,首位商越高,表明城市体系的首位集中度越高。
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[3]自治市是指那些最初从领主手中获得自治权的城市,一般历史比较悠久,具有传统的议员选举权,城市机构(commission)由特定的显贵家族控制;19世纪30年代议会改革后,议会根据当时的城市规模和分布情况又颁发了新的特许状,并据此分配议员选举名额,获得授权的城市根据特许状组建民主的城市管理机构(corporation),这些城市被称为议会授权城市。
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[5]之所以称之为“黑乡”,是因为在工业革命之后,这片原本以农业生产为主的区域迅速变成了工业区,到处是冒着黑烟的工厂,整个区域经常笼罩在烟雾的包围之中。
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[3]登记吨亦称“注册吨”,计算船只容积的单位,一登记吨等于2.83立方米。
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