摘要
双语者在进行语言加工时必须要面临的一个问题就是语码转换。本文将从以下几个角度研究双语者语码转换过程中的认知神经机制。(1)L1和L2大脑词库词汇联想测试;(2)中英双语被试家族词汇行为实验;(3)Stroop、Simon和Flanker多源冲突实验;(4)奇偶数汉英语码转换行为实验;(5)奇偶数汉英语码转换ERP实验。研究结果提供了以下结论:(1)L2大脑词库的心理联想测试探讨了L2大脑词库词汇之间的语义关系。L2学习者能产生大量的与语义相关的反应,反应类型依次为:聚合反应、组合反应、语音反应和无反应,说明语义在L2大脑词库的构建中起到很重要的作用。(2)较高的L2水平可促进中英双语者在家族词汇判断任务中的英语词汇辨认,但性别差异的作用几乎没有。家族密度和词频因素在中英双语者的英语词汇辨认中均呈现出促进作用,这一发现与以往在拼音文字中的研究结果相似。(3)双语者的L2熟练程度和解决冲突能力之间呈正相关。尽管对于实验的总正确率以及冲突情况下的正确率,英语专业与非英语专业学生的成绩差异不显著。但是,在冲突情况下,当反应目标为三个刺激数字中间的一个,即反应目标两边的数字相同时,也是实验中最难的情况,英语专业被试的正确率要显著高于非英语专业被试。(4)奇偶数语码转换的行为试验结果表明,语码转换任务与转码耗损有关。L2熟练学习者在L1向L2转换,比非熟练L2学习者要快;而在L2向L1转换时,非熟练L2学习者的时间耗损更多一些。对于语言内转码,L2熟练学习者的表现要明显好于非熟练L2学习者。说明L2熟练学习者对语言的敏感度强于非熟练L2学习者。(5)英汉转码和汉英转码在150ms-180ms(N150),240ms-260ms(P300)有显著的差异。在500-600ms也有很多区域电极出现差异。在N150成分中可明显看到英汉转码比汉英转码引起了更大的波幅,潜伏期在脑的中后部没有出现明显的提前,但在前部英汉转码比汉英转码引起的N150要提前50ms。这说明对于以汉语为L1的人群,在由L2向L1转码时,需要更多的由上到下的参与,也就是额顶叶对转码的调节。因此,英汉双语者在进行L2加工过程中不断地受到L1的干扰和抑制,L2熟练程度和解决冲突能力正相关。总之,L2学习者在语码转换中,L1向L2和L2向L1转换呈现不同的趋势。
Bilinguals will face the problem of language switch when they process the language. The paper researches into the cognitive and neural mechanism of the language switch of bilinguals as follows: (1) word association test of L1 and L2 mental lexicon; (2) neighborhood effect test of the bilinguals; (3) MSIT with Stroop, Simon and Flanker combined; (4) behavioral experiment of the even-odd number language switch; (5) ERP experiment of the even-odd number language switch. The results give us the following implications: (1) The word association test based on L2 mental lexicon explores the semantic relation of the words. Most of the responses of the L2 learners are semantically-related including paradigmatic relation, syntagmatic relation, clang response null response in the order of importance, showing that semantics plays an important role in the construction of the L2 mental lexicon. (2) More proficient L2 learners perform better in finishing neighborhood word decision task without sex differences. Neighborhood density and frequency facilitate the English word recognition, similar to the result of the alphabetic language. (3) The proficiency of the L2 learners is positively related to the ability to resolve the conflicts. Although English majors do not pose advantage in the accuracy and reaction times, English majors do much better than non-English majors in the middle position of the interference trials, the most difficult position in the test. (4) Language switch cost is an essential factor in finishing the Language switch task. When switching from L1 to L2, more proficient L2 learners perform faster. When switching from L2 to L1, less proficient spend more time. As to the within-language switch, more proficient L2 learners perform much better than less proficient L2 learners, indicating more proficient L2 learners develop high sensitivity than less proficient L2 learners. English-Chinese switch and Chinese-English switch are different at 150ms-180ms(N150)and 240ms-260ms(P300)with the biggest difference at 500-600ms. At N150 component the bigger amplitude can be seen in English-Chinese switch than Chinese-English switch without obvious early latency in the middle and posterior brain, demonstrating that when Chinese native speakers switch from L2 to L1, the top-down interference is needed, that is, the influence of the frontal lobe and parietal lobe. To conclude, the language switch from L1 to L2, and from L2 to L1 assumes a different pattern.
引文
[1] Libben G. Representation and processing in the second language lexicon: The homogeneity hypothesis. Second language acquisition and linguistic theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publisher, 2000.
[2] Harly T A. The Psychology of Language from Data to Theory. 2nd ed. East Sussex: Psychology Press Ltd, 2001.
[3] Weinreich U. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953.
[4] Ervin S, Osgood C E Second Language Learning and Bilingualism. Journal of Abnormaland Social Psychology, Supplement, 1954, (49).
[5] Paradis M. The Stratification of Bilingualism. in Paradis M.(ed.)Aspects of Bilingualism. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam Press, 1978.
[6] Potter M C, So K F, Von Eckardt B et al. Lexical and conceptual representation in beginning and more proficient bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 1984,(23):23-28.
[7] Chen H C, Leung,Y S.Patterns of lexical processing in a nonnative language. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1989, (15): 316-325.
[8] Kroll J F, Curley J. Lexical memory in novice bilinguals. The role of concepts in retrieving second language words. In: Grunenberg M, Morris P, Sykes,R, ed. Practical aspects of memory, V.2: London: John Wiley and Sons, 1988:389-395.
[9] Kroll J F, Stewart E. Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 1994, 33:149-174.
[10] De Groot A M B, Kroll J F.Lexical and conceptual memory in the bilingual mapping form to meaning in two languages. In: Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997.
[11] Collins A M, Loftus, E F, A spreading activation theory of semantic processing, The Psychological Review, 1975, 82(6): 407-428.
[12] Dijkstra T, Van Jaarsveld, H, Brinke S.Interlingual homograph recognition: Effects of task demands and language intermixing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1998,1:51-66.
[13] Dijkstra T, Van Heuven W J B. The BIA model and bilingual word recognition. Localist connectionist approaches to human cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998.
[14] Sunderman G, Kroll J. First Language Activation During Second Language Lexical Processing.Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2006,28:387-422.
[15] 戴炜栋,王宇红. 双语大脑词库研究述评. 外语与外语教学,2008, 227(2): 16-22.
[16] Grosjean F. Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1998, 1:131-149.
[17] Elston-Guttler K E. An inquiry into cross-language differences in Lexical-conceptual relationships and their effect on L2 lexical processing. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge, 2000.
[18] Dijkstra T, Van Heuven W J B. The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2000, 5:175-197.
[19]Schwartz A.Word and sentence-based processes in second language reading.The Pennsylvania State University,University Park,2003.
[20]董燕萍.双语大脑词库的共享(分布式)非对称模型.现代外语,1998,81(3):12-29.
[21]李荣宝澎聃龄.双语者的语义表征.现代外语,1999,85(3):255-272.
[22]张珊珊.通过单词联想实验探索二语词汇的结构.现代外语,2006.29(2):164-171.
[23]张淑静.从联想测试看二语大脑词库之间的联系.解放军外国语学院学报,2005,28(2):52-57.
[24]张淑静.二语心理词汇和母语心理词汇的差异.四川外语学院学报,2005.21(5):103-107.
[25]张淑静.中国英语学习者大脑词库:性质与发展模式.河南大学出版社,2004.
[26]Grosjean F.Processing mixed languages:Issues,findings and models.In:De Groot K,Kroll J F,ed.Tutorials in bilingualism:Psycholinguistic perspectives,Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1997:225-254.
[27]Paradis M.Bilingual and polyglot aphasia.In:Boiler F,Grafman J,ed.Handbook of neuropsychology.Amsterdam:Elsevier,1989:117-140.
[28]Diamond A.Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood:Cognitive functions,anatomy,and biochemistry.In:Stuss D T,Knight R T,ed.Principles of frontal lobe function.New York:Oxford University Press,2002:466-503.
[29]Carlson S M,Moses,L J.Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind.Child Development,2001,72:1032-1053.
[30]Perner J,Lang B.Development of theory of mind and executive control.Trends in Cognitive Science,1999,3:337.
[31]Costa A,Caramazza A.Is lexical selection in bilingual speech production language-specific? Further evidence from Spanish-English and English-Spanish bilinguals.Bilingualism:Language and Cognition,1999,2(3):231-244.
[32]De Bot K.A bilingual production model:Levelt's "speaking" model adapted.Applied Linguistics,1992,13:1-24.
[33]Hermans D,Bongaerts T,De Bot K,et al.Producing words in a foreign language:Can speakers prevent interference from their first language? Bilingualism:Language and Cognition,1998,1:213-229.
[34]Poulisse N.Slips of the tongue:Speech errors in first and second language production.Amsterdam:Benjamins,1999.
[35]Green D W.Control,activation,and resource:A framework and a model for the control of speech in bilinguals.Brain and Language,1986,27:210-223.
[36]Green D W.Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system.Bilingualism:Language and Cognition,1998,1:67-81.
[37]Poulisse N,Bongaerts T.First language use in second language production.Applied Linguistics,1994,15:36-57.
[38]Norman D A,Shallice T,Attention to action:Willed and automatic control of behavior.In:Davidson R J,Schwartz G E,Shapiro D,ed.Consciousness and self-regulation.New York:Plenum,1986,1-18.
[39]Meuter R F I,Allport A.Bilingual language switching in naming:Asymmetrical costs of language selection.Journal of Memory and Language,1999,40:25-40.
[40] Li P. Spoken word recognition of code-switched words by Chinese-English bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 1996, 35:757-774.
[41] Li P. Mental control, language tags, and language nodes in bilingual lexical processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1998, 1:93.
[42] Grosjean F. Exploring the recognition of guest words in bilingual speech. Language and Cognitive Processes, 1988, 3:233-274.
[43] Grosjean F, Miller J L. Going in and out of languages: An example of bilingual flexibility. Psychological Science, 1994, 5:201-206.
[44] Bialystok E. Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual mind. Child Development, 1999, 70:636-644.
[45] Spector A, Biederman I. Mental set and mental shift revisited. Amercan Journal of Psychology, 1976, 89:669-679.
[46] Grainger J, Beauvillain C. Language blocking and lexical access in bilinguals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1987, 39:295-319.
[47] Thomas M S C, Allport A. Language switching costs in bilingual word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 2000, 43:44-66.
[48] Costa A, Miozzo M, Caramazza A. Lexical selection in bilinguals: Do words in the bilingual's two lexicons compete for selection? Journal of Memory and Language, 1999,41:365-397.
[49] Costa A, Santesteban M.Lexical access in bilingual speech production: Evidence from language switching in highly proficient bilinguals and L2 learners. Journal of Memory and Language, 2004, 50:491-511.
[50] Grosjean F, Miller J L. Going in and out of languages: An example of bilingual flexibility. Psychological Science, 1994,5:201-206.
[51] 李利,莫雷,王瑞明等. 双语言语产生中的词汇提取机制. 心理科学进展2006,14(5):648-653.
[52] Allport A, Styles E A. Hsieh S.Shifting attentional set: exploring the dynamic control of tasks. In: Umilta C, Moscovitch M, ed. Attention and Performance XV: Conscious and Nonconscious Information Processing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994: 421-452.
[53] Jackson G M, Swainson R. Cunnington R et al. ERP correlates of executive control during repeated language switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2001,4:169-178.
[54] Munoz M L, Marquardt T P. Copland G. A comparison of the codeswithing patterns of aphasic and neurologically normal bilingual speakers of English and Spanish. Brain and Language, 1999, 66:249-274
[55] Hernandez A E, Kohnert K J. Aging and Language Switching in Bilinguals. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 1999, 6:69-83
[56] Costa A, Santesteban M, Ivanova I. How do highly proficient bilinguals control their lexicalization process? Inhibitory and language-specific selection mechanisms are both functional. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition, 2006, 32(5): 1057-1074.
[57] Rodriguez-Fornells A, Van der Lugt A, Rotte M et al. Second language interferes with word production in fluent bilinguals: Brain potential and functional imaging evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2005,17:422-433.
[58]Bialystok,E.Bilingualism in development:Language,literacy,and cognition.New York:Cambridge University Press,2001.
[59]Bialystok E,Craik F I M,Klein R et al.Bilingualism,aging,and cognitive control:Evidence from the Simon task.Psychology and Aging,2004,19:290-303.
[60]Costa A,Hernandez M,Sebastian-Galles N.Bilingualism aids conflict resolution:Evidence from the ANT task.Cognition,2008,106:59-86.
[61]Christoffels I K,Firk C,Schiller N O.Bilingual language control:an event-related brain potential study.Brain Research,2007,1147:192-208.
[62]Hemandez A E,Martinez A,Kohnert K.In search of the language switching:An fMRI Study of Picture Naming in Spanish-English bilinguals.Brain and Language,2000,73:421-431
[63]Hernandez A E,Dapretto M,Mazziotta Jet al.Language switching and language representation in Spainish-English bilinguals:An fMRIsStudy.Neurolmage,2001,14:510-520.
[64]Baddeley A D.The episodic buffer:A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences,2000,4417-423.
[65]祁志强,丁国盛,彭聃龄.双语者语言切换的认知与神经机制-从行为研究到脑成像研究.应用心理学,2006,12(3):280-284.
[66]Klein D,Milner B,Zatorre R Jet al.The neural substrates underlying word generation:A bilingual functional-imaging study.Processings of the National Academy of Sciences USA,1995,92:2899-2903.
[67]Klein D,Zatorre R J,Milner B et al.Left putaminal activation when speaking a second language:Evidence from PET.NeuroReport,1994,5(17):2295-2297.
[68]Perani D,Dehaene S,Grassi F et al.Brain processing of native and foreign languages.NeuroReport,1996,7:2439-2444.
[69]Perani,D.,Paulesu,E.,Galles,N.S.et al.The bilingual brain:Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language.Brain,1998,121:1841-1852.
[70]Kim K H,Relkin N R,Lee K Met al.Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages.Nature,1997,388:171-174
[71]Chee M W L,Tan E W L,Thiel T.Mandarin and English single word processing studied with functional magnetic resonance imaging.The Journal of Neuroscience,1999,19:3050-3056.
[72]Chee M W L,Caplan D,Soon C S et al.Processing of visually presented sentences in Mandarin and English studied with fMRI.Neuron,1999,23:127-137.
[73]IIIes J,Francis W S,Desmond J E et al.Convergent cortical representation of semantic processing in bilinguals.Brain and Language,1999,70:347-363.
[74]Price C J,Green D W,yon Studuitz R E.A functional imaging study of translation and language swithing.Brain,1999,122:2221-2235.
[75]赵小虎,杨振燕,詹松华等.汉英双语脑活动区功能磁共振研究.上海医学,2003,26(5):46-49.
[76]Pandya D N,Barnes C L.Architecture and connections of the frontal lobe.In:Perecman E,ed.The frontal lobes revisited,New York,IRBN Press,1987:41-72.
[77]Pandya D N,Yeterian E H Prefrontal cortex in relation to other cortical areas in rhesus monkey-architecture and connections.Progress in Brain Research,1990,85:63-94.
[78] Barcelo F, Suwazono S, Knight R T. Prefrontal modulation of visual processing in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 2000,3:399-403.
[79] Corbetta M, Miezin F M, Dobmeyer S et al. Attentional modulation of neural processing of shape, color, and velocity in humans. Science, 1990, 248:1556-1559.
[80] Hillyard S A, Hink R F, Schwent V L et al. Electrical signs of selective attention in human brain. Science, 1973, 182:171-180.
[81] Moran J, Desimone R. Selective attention gates visual processing in the extrastriate cortex. Science, 1985,229:782-784.
[82] Pessoa L, Kastner S, Ungerleider L G. Neuroimaging studies of attention: From modulation of sensory processing to top-down control. Journal of Neuroscience, 2003, 23:3990-3998.
[83] Chao L L, Knight R T. Contribution of human prefrontal cortex to delay performance. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1998, 10:167-177.
[84] Knight R T, Scabini D, Woods D L. Prefrontal cortex gating of auditory transmission in humans. Brain Research, 1989, 504:338-342.
[85] Yamaguchi S, Knight R T. Gating of somatosensory input by human prefrontal cortex. Brain Research, 1990,521:281-288.
[86] Gazzaley A, Cooney J W, McEvoy K et al.Top-down enhancement and suppression of the magnitude and speed of neural activity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2005, 17:507-517.
[87] Dove A, Pollmann S, Schubert T et al. Prefrontal cortex activation in task switching: an event-related fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 2000, 9:103-109.
[88] Konishi S, Jimura K, Asari T et al. Transient activation of superior prefrontal cortex during inhibition of cognitive set. Journal of Neuroscience, 2003, 23:7776-7782.
[89] Sohn M H, Ursu S, Anderson J R et al. The role of prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex in task switching. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, U.S.A., 2000, 97(24):13448-13453.
[90] Wang Y, Xue G, Chen C et al. Neural Bases of Asymmetric Language Switching in Second- Language Learners: An ER-fMRI study. Neuroimage, 2007, 35:862-870.
[91] Alvarez R P, Holcomb PJ, Grainger J. Accessing word meaning in two languages: an event-related brain potential study of beginning bilinguals. Brain and Language, 2003, 87(2):290-304.
[92] Proverbio A M, Leoni G, Zani A. Language switching mechanisms in simultaneous interpreters: an ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 2004, 42:1636-1656.
[93] Meyer D E, Evans J F, Lauber E J et al. Activation of brain mechanisms for executive mental processes in cognitive task switching. Poster presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, Boston, 1997.
[94] Zatorre R J, Meyer E, Gjedde A et al. PET studies of phonetic processing of speech: review, replication and reanalysis. Cereb Cortex, 1996, 6:21-30.
[95] Rodriguez-Fornells A, Rotte M, Heinze H J et al. Brain potential and functional MRI evidence for how to handle two languages with one brain. Nature, 2002,415:1026-1029.
[96] Grill-Spector K, Henson R, Martin A. Repetition and the brain: neural models of stimulus-specific effects. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2006, 10(1):14-23.
[97]Chee M W L,Soon C S,Lee H L.Common and segregated neuronal networks for different languages revealed using functional magnetic resonance adaptation.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,2003,15:85-97.
[98]Crinion R,Turner A,Grogan T et al.Language control in the bilingual brain.Science,2006,312(5779):1537-1540.
[99]Klein D,Milner B,Zatorre R Jet al.Cerebrai organization in bilinguals:a PET study of Chinese-English verb generation.Neuroreport,1999,10:2841-2846.
[100]Chee M W,Caplan D,Soon C Set al.Processing of visually presented sentences in Mandarin and English studied with fMRI.Neuron,1999,23:127-137.
[101]Vingerhoets G,Van Borsel J,Tesink C et al.Multilingualism:an fMRI study.Neuroimage,2003,20:2181-2196.
[102]Dehaene S,Dupoux E,Mehler J et al.Anatomical variability in the cortical representation of first and second language.Neuroreport,1997,8:3809-3815.
[103]Reiterer S,Berger M L,Hemmelmann C et al.Decreased EEG coherence between prefrontal electrodes:a correlate of high language proficiency? Experimental Brain Research,2005,163(1):109-113.
[104]Abutalebi J,Annoni J M,Zimine Iet al.Language Control and Lexical Competition in Bilinguals:An Event-Related fMRI Study.Cerebral Cortex,2008,18(7):1496-1505.
[105]Wang Y,Kuhl P K,Li H et al.Sustained and transient brain activations in bilingual control.The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,2008,123(5):3890.
[106]Kovelman I,Baker S A,Petitto L A.Bilingual and monolingual brains compared:a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of syntactic processing and a possible "neural signature"of bilingualism.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,2008,20(1):153-169.
[107]Kovelman I,Shalinsky M H,Berens M Set al.Shining new light on the brain's "bilingual signature":a functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy investigation of semantic processing.Neuroimage,2008,39(3):1457-1471.
[108]Fabbro F,Skrap M,Aglioti S.Pathological switching between languages after frontal lesions in a bilingual patient.Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry,2000,68:650-652.
[109]李利,莫雷,陈卓铭等.前额叶在双语词汇提取中的抑制机制-对一例前额叶损伤双语病人的研究.心理科学进展,2006,14(5):648-653.
[110]Fabbro F.The bilingual brain:Cerebral representation of languages.Brain and Language,2001,79:211-222.
[111]Strafella A P,Paus T.Modulation of cortical excitability during action observation:a transcranial magnetic stimulation study European.Neuroreport,2000,11(10):2289-2292.
[112]Aglioti S,Fabbro F.Paradoxical selective recovery in a bilingual aphasic following subcortical lesions.Neuroreport,1993,4:1359-1362.
[113]Paulesu E,McCrory E,Fazio F et al.A cultural effect on brain function.Nature Neuroscience,2000,3(1):91-96.
[114]Curtis C E,D'Esposito M,Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,2003,7:415-423.
[115] D'Esposito M, Detre J A. Alsop D C et al. The neural basis of central execution systems of working memory. Nature, 1995,378:279-281.
[116] Garavan H, Ross T J, Li S J et al. A parametric manipulation of central executive functioning. Cerebral Cortex, 2000,10:585-592.
[117] Hadland K A, Rushworth M F S, Passingham R E et al.lnterference with performance of a response selection task that has no working memory component: An rTMS comparison of the dorsolateral prefrontal and medial frontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2001, 13:1097-1108.
[118] Dreher J C, Koechlin E, Ali S O et al. The roles of timing and task order during task switching. NeuroImage, 2002,17:95-109.
[119] Rogers R D, Sahakian B J, Hodges J R et al. Dissociating executive mechanisms of task control following frontal lobe damage and Parkinson's disease. Brain, 1998,121:815-842.
[120] Cohen J D, Botvinick M, Carter C S. Anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex: Who's in control? Nature Neuroscience, 2000,3:421-423.
[121] Baddeley A, Emslie H, Kolodny J et al. Random generation and the executive control of working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 1998,51:819-852.
[122] Carter C S, Braver T S, Barch D M et al. Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection, and the online monitoring of performance. Science, 1998.280: 747-749.
[123] Carter C S, Macdonald A M, Botvinick M et al. Parsing executive processes: Strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2000,97: 1944-1948.
[124] Paradis M. Aspects of bilingual aphasia. Tarrytown,NY: Pergamon,1995.
[125] Kent G, Rosanoff A. A study of association in insanity. American Journal of Insanity, 1910,67:37-96.
[126] Jenkins J J. The 1952 Minnesota word association norms. In: Postman L, Keppel G,ed. Norms of word association. London: Academic Press. 1970:1-38.
[127] Politzer R L. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic asssociations of first year French students. In: Honsa V, Hardman-de-Bantista J, ed. Papers on Linguistics and Child Language Research. The Hague, 1978: 203-210.
[128] Meara, P. Word Associations In a Foreign Language: A Report on the Birkbeck Vocabulary Project. Birkbeck College, London University.1983.
[129] Kruse H, Pankhurst J, Smith M S.A multiple word association probe in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1987,9:141-154.
[130] Schmitt N, Quantifying word association responses: what is nativelike? System, 1998,26:389-401.
[131] Orita M, Word associations of Japanese EFL learners and native speakers: shifts in response type distribution and the associative development of individual words. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 2002.13.
[132] Prior A, Bentin S. Word associations are formed incidentally during sentential semantic integration, Acta Psychologica, 2008, 127(1): 57-71.
[133] Singleton D. Exploring the second Language mental lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1999.
[134] 白人立. 词汇联想反应. 外语与外语教学,2005,1: 28-31.
[135]Randall M.Word association behavior in learners of English as a second language.Polyglot 2,1980.
[136]Meara P.Vocabulary acquisition:a neglected aspect of language learning.Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts.1980,13:221-246.
[137]Deese J,The Structure of Associations in Language and Thought.Baltimore:John Hopkins Press.1965.
[138]Miller K M.Free-association responses of English and Australian students to 100 words from the Kent-Rosanoff Word Association Test.In:Postman L,Keppel G,ed.Norms of word association.London:Academic Press,1970:41-53.
[139]Welsh E.Second Language Lexical Networks.[MA Thesis].Birkbeck:University of London,1988.
[140]Meara P.Vocabulary in a second language.Reading in a Foreign Langnage,1992,3:761-837.
[141]张淑静.从反应类型看词汇习得.外语教学与研究,2003,35(4):275-281.
[142]Coady J,Huckin T.Second language vocabulary acquisition a rationale for pedagogy.London:Cambridge University Press.1997.
[143]Balota D A,Chumbley J I.Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,1984,10:340-357.
[144]Perea M,Rosa E,Gomez C.Influence of neighborhood size and exposure duration on visual-word recognition:Evidence with the yes/no and the go/no-go lexical decision task.Perception and Psychophysics,2003,65:273-286.
[145]Ferraro F R,Hansen C L.Orthographic neighborhood size,number of word meanings,and number of higher frequency neighbors.Brain and Language,2002,82:200-205.
[146]Andrews S.The effects of orthographic similarity on lexical retrieval:Resolving neighborhood conflicts.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,1997,4:439-461.
[147]Grainger J,Jacobs A M.Orthographic processing in visual word recognition:A multiple read-out model.Psychological Review,1996,103:518-565.
[148]Pollatsek A,Perea M,Binder,K.The effects of neighborhood size in reading and lexical decision.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,1999,25:1142-1158.
[149]Coltheart M,Davelaar E,Jonasson J T et al.Access to the internal lexicon.In:Dornic S,ed.Attention and Performance Ⅵ.New York:Academic Press.1977:535-555.
[150]Van Heuven W J B,Dijkstra A,Grainger J.Orthographic Neighborhood Effects in Bilingual Word Recognition.Journal of Memory and Language,1998,39:458-483.
[151]桂诗春.新编心理语言学.上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000.
[152]毕鸿燕,胡伟,翁旭初.汉语形声字声旁家族大小对整字发音的影响.心理学报,2006,38(6):791-797.
[153]Carreiras M,Perea M,Grainger J.Effects of orthographic neighborhood in visual word recognition:Cross-task comparisons.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1997,23:857-871.
[154]Snodgrass J G,Mintzer M.Neighborhood effects in visual word recognition:Facilitatory or inhibitory? Memory and Cognition,1993,21:247-266.
[155]Andrews S.Frequency and neighborhood effects on lexical access:Activation or search? Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1989,15:802-814.
[156] Andrews S. Frequency and neighborhood effects on lexical access: Lexical similarity or orthographic redundancy? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 1992,18:234-254.
[157] Perea M, Carreiras M, Grainger, J. Blocking by word frequency and neighborhood density in visual word recognition: A task-specific response criteria account. Memory and Cognition, 2004,32(7): 1090-1102.
[158] Forster K I, Shen D. No enemies in the neighborhood: Absence of inhibitory neighborhood effects in lexical decision and semantic categorization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 1996,22: 696-713.
[159] Perea M, Rosa E. Does "whole-word shape" play a role in visual word recognition? Perception and Psychophysics, 2002,64:785-794.
[160] Sears C R, Hino Y, Lupker S J. Neighborhood frequency and neighborhood size effects in visual word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1995,21:876-900.
[161] Siakaluk P D, Sears C R, Lupker S J. Orthographic neighborhood effects in lexical decision: The effects of nonword orthographic neighborhood size. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2002,28: 661-681.
[162] Bijeljacbabic, R., Biardeau, A., & Grainger, J. 1997: Masked priming in bilingual word recognition. Memory and Cognition, 25,447-457.
[163] Chen, H. C. 1990: Lexical processing in a nonnative language: The effects of language proficiency and learning strategy. Memory and Cognition, 18, 279-288.
[164] Cheung H, Chen H C. 1998: Lexical and conceptual processing in Chinese-English bilinguals: Further evidence for asymmetry. Memory and Cognition, 26, 1002-1013.
[165] Dufour R, Kroll J F. Matching words to concepts in two languages: A test of the concept mediation model of bilingual representation. Memory and Cognition, 1995,23:166-180.
[166] Gascoigne C. Lexical and conceptual representations in more- and less-skilled bilinguals: The role of cognates. Foreign Language Annals, 2001,34:446-452.
[167] Kawakami A. The effect of proficiency in a second language on lexical-conceptual representation. Japanese Journal of Psychology, 1994,64: 426-433.
[168] Woutersen M, De Bot K, Welstens, B. The bilingual lexicon: Modality effects in processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 1995,24:289-298.
[169] Baayen H, Piepenbrock R, Van Rijn H. The CELEX lexical database (CD-ROM). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Linguistic Data Consortium. 1993.
[170] Dijkstra A, Van Heuven W J B. The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2002,23:175-197.
[171] Jared D, Kroll J F. Do bilinguals activate phonological representations in one or both of their languages when naming words? Journal of Memory and Language, 2001,44:2-31.
[172] Marian V, Spivey M. Bilingual and monolingual processing of competing lexical items. Applied Psycholinguistics, 2003,24:173-193.
[173] Costa A. Lexical access in bilingual production. In: Kroll J F, De Groot A M B ed. Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches, New York: Oxford University Press,2005.
[174] Costa A,Caramazza A. Is lexical selection in bilingual speech production language-specific? Further evidence from Spanish-English and English-Spanish bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1999,2(3):231-244.
[175] Finkbeiner M, Almeida J, Janssen N et al. Lexical selection in bilingual speech production does not involve language suppression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 2006,32(5): 1075-1089.
[176] Kroll J F, Bobb C, Wodniecka Z. Language selectivity is the exception, not the rule: arguments against a fixed locus of language selection in bilingual speech. Bilingualism, 2006,9(2): 111-135.
[177] La Heij W. Selection processes in monolingual and bilingual lexical access. In: Kroll J F, De Groot A M B, ed. Handbook of Bilingualism. Oxford: Oxford University Press,2005.
[178] Kolers P A. Interlingual facilitation in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 1966,5:314-319.
[179] Dalrymple-Alford E C. Language switching during bilingual reading. British Journal of Psychology, 1985,76:111-122.
[180] Macnamara J, Kushnir S. Linguistic independence in bilinguals: The input switch. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 1971, 10:480-487.
[181] Thomas M S C, Allport A. The dynamic control of bilinguals'lexical representations. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society, 1995, Sept.
[182] Von Studnitz R E,Green D W. Lexical decision and language switching. International Journal of Bilingualism, 1997,1:3-24.
[183] Grainger J, Beauvillain C. Associative priming in bilinguals: Some limits of interlingual facilitation effects. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1988, 42: 261-273.
[184] Grainger J, Dijkstra T. On the representation and use of language information in bilinguals. In: Harris R J, ed. Cognitive processing in bilinguals. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,1992.
[185] Costa A, Santesteban M. Lexical access in bilingual speech production: evidence from language switching in highly proficient bilinguals and L2 learners. Journal of Memory and Language, 2004,50:491-511.
[186] Costa A, Santesteban M, Ivanova I. How do highly proficient bilinguals control their lexicalization process? Inhibitory and language-specific selection mechanisms are both functional. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 2006,32(5):1057-1074.
[187] Poulisse N, Bongaerts T. First language use in second language production. Applied Linguistics, 1994,15:36-57.
[188] Perani D, Paulesu E, Galles-Sebastian N et al. The bilingual brain: Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language.Brain,1998,121:1841-1852.
[189]Slagter H A, Lutz A, Greischar L L et al. Mental training affects distribution of limited brain resources. PLoS Biology, 2007,5(6):e138.
[190]Stins J F, Polderman J C, Boomsma D I et al. Response interference and working memory in 12-year-old children. Child Neuropsychology,2005,11 (2): 191 -201.
[191] Duncan J."EPS Mid-Career Award 2004: brain mechanisms of attention." The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Colchester),2006, 59(1):2-27
[192] Stroop J R. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1935,18: 643-662.
[193] Simon J R, Berbaum K. Effect of conflicting cues on information processing: the 'Stroop effect'vs the 'Simon Effect'. Acta Psychology, 1990,73: 159-170.
[194] Peterson B S, Skudlarski P, Gatenby JC et al. An fMRI study of Stroop word-color interference:evidence for cingulate subregions subserving multiple distributed attentional systems. Biology Psychiatry, 1999,45:1237-1258.
[195] MacLeod C M, MacDonald P A. Interdimensional interference in the Stroop effect: uncovering the cognitive and neural anatomy of attention. Trends of Cognitive Science,2000,4:383-391.
[196] Taylor S F, Kornblum S, Lauber E J et al.Isolation of specific interference processing in the Stroop task: PET activation studies. Neuroimage, 1997, 6: 81-92.
[197] Ruff C C, Woodward T S, Laurens K R et al.The role of the anterior cingulate cortex in conflict processing: evidence from reverse stroop interference. Neuroimage, 2001,14:1150-1158.
[198] Botvinick M, Nystrom L E, Fissell K et al.Conflict monitoring versus selection-for-action in anterior cingulate cortex. Nature, 1999,402:179-181.
[199] Casey B J, Thomas K M, Welsh T F et al.Dissociation of response conflict, attentional selection, and expectancy with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Proceedings of National Academy of Science USA, 2000,97: 8728-8733.
[200] Liu X, Banich M T, Jacobson B L et al. Common and distinct neural substrates of attentional control in an integrated Simon and spatial Stroop task as assessed by event-related fMRI. Neuroimage, 2004, 22(3): 1097-1106
[201] Koch I. Anticipatory response control in motor sequence learning: Evidence from stimulus-response compatibility. Human Movement Science, 2007,26(2): 257-274.
[202] Eriksen B A, Eriksen C W. Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Perception Psychophysics, 1974, 16: 143-149.
[203] Fan J, McCandliss B D, Sommer T et al. Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2002,14(3): 340-2347.
[204] Rueda M R, Posner M I, Rothbart M K. The Development of Executive Attention: Contributions to the Emergence of Self-Regulation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2005, 28 (2) : 573-594
[206] Fan J, Flombaum J I, McCandliss B D et al. Cognitive and brain consequences of conflict. Neuroimage, 2003,18(1):42-57.
[207] Bush G, Shin L M. The Multi-Source Interference Task: an fMRI task that reliable activates the cinglo-frontal-parietal cognitive/attention network, Nature Protocols, 2006,1: 308- 313.
[208] Bush G, Shin L M, Holmes M J et al.The Multi-Source cInterference Task: validation study with fMRI in individual subjects Molecular Psychiatry, 2003, 8: 60 - 70.
[209] MacWhinney B. Second Language Acquisition and the Competition Model. In: De Groot A M B, Kroll J F, ed. Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers, 1997.
[210]Dussias P E. Syntactic ambiguity resolution in L2 learners: Some effects of bilinguality on L1 and L2 processing strategies. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2003, 25:529-557.
[211] Sundara M, Polka L, Baum S. Production of coronal stops by simultaneous bilingual adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2006,9(1):97—114.
[212] Gooding D C, Braun J G, Studer J A. Attentional network task performance in patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: evidence of a specific deficit. Schizophrenia Research. 2006,88(1-3):169-178.
[213] Jackson G M, Swainson R A, Cunnington M R et al. ERP correlates of a receptive language switching task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2004,57A(2):223-240.
[214] Von Studnitz R E, Green D W. The cost of switching language in a semantic categorization task. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2002,5:241-251.
[215] Pashler M C, Baylis G. Procedural learning: II. Intertrial repletion effects in speeded choice tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1991,17:33-48.
[216] Rabbitt P M A. Repetition effects and signal classification strategies in serial choice response tasks. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,20A: 232-240.
[217] Rogers R D, Monsell S. Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1995, 124:207-231.
[218] Moreno E M, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Laine M. Event-related potentials (ERPs) in the study of bilingual language processing. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroling.2008.01.003
[219] Osterhout L, McLaughlin J, Pitkanen I et al. Novice learners, longitudinal designs, and event-related potentials: A means for exploring the neurocognition of second language processing. Language Learning, 2006, 56: 199 - 230.
[220] Cunillera T, Toro J M, Sebastian-Galles N et al. The effects of stress and statistical cues on continuous speech segmentation: An event-related brain potential study. Brain Research, 2006, 1123(1): 168-178.
[221] De Diego Balaguer R, Toro J M, Rodriguez-Fornells A et al. Different neurophysiological mechanisms underlying word and rule extraction from speech. PLOS One, 2007,2(11): el 175.
[222] Sanders L D, Newport E L, Neville H J. Segmenting nonsense: An event-related potential index of perceived onsets in continuous speech. Nature Neuroscience, 2002,5(7): 700 - 703.
[223] Cornelissen K, Laine M, Tarkiainen A et al. Adult brain plasticity elicited by anomia treatment. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2003,15(3): 444 - 461.
[224] Cornelissen K, Laine M, Renvall K et al. Learning new names for new objects: Cortical effects as measured by magnetoencephalography. Brain and Language, 2004, 89(3): 617 - 622.
[225] Friederici A D, Steinhauer K, Pfeifer E. Brain signatures of artificial language processing: Evidence challenging the critical period hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2002,99(1): 529 - 534.
[226] Friederici A D, Bahlmann J, Heim S et al. The brain differentiates human and non-human grammars: Functional localization and structural connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2006,103(7): 2458 - 2463.
[227] McLaughlin J, Osterhout L, Kim A. Neural correlates of second-language word learning: Minimal instruction produces rapid change. Nature Neuroscience, 2004, 7(7): 703 - 704.
[228] Mestres-Misse A, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Munte T F. Watching the brain during meaning acquisition. Cerebral Cortex, 2007, 17(8): 1858 - 1866.
[229] Mueller J L. Electrophysiological correlates of second language processing. Second Language Research, 2005,21 (2): 152 - 174.
[230] Opitz B, Friederici A D. Brain correlates of language learning: The neuronal dissociation of rulebased versus similarity-based learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 2004,24(39): 8436 - 8440.
[231] Khateb A, Abutalebid J, Michel C M et al. Language selection in bilinguals: A spatio-temporal analysis of electric brain activity. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 2007, 65:201-213.
[232] Gr"onholm P, Rinne J O, Vorobyev V et al. Learning to name unfamiliar objects: A PET activation study. Cognitive Brain Research, 2005,25:359-371.
[233] Laine M. The learning brain. Brain and Language, 2000,71:132-134.
[234] Mestres A, Rodriguez-Fornells A, M"unte T F. Watching the brain during meaning acquisition. Cerebral Cortex, 2007,17(8): 1858-1866.
[235] Mueller J L, Mechanisms of auditory sentence comprehension in first and second language: An electrophysiological miniature grammar study: [dissertation]. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, 2005.
[236] Sakai K L. Language acquisition and brain development. Science, 2005, 310: 815-819.
[237] Gaskell M G, Dumay N. Lexical competition and the acquisition of novel words. Cognition, 2003,89:105-132.
[238] Ullman M T. The neural basis of lexicon and grammar in first and second language: The declarative/procedural model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2001,4: 105-122.
[239] Franceschini R, Zappatore D, Nitsch, C. Lexicon in the brain: What neurobiology has to say about languages. In: Cenoz J, Hufeisen B, Jessner U, ed. Multilingual lexicon Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers,2003:153-166.
[240] Klein W. Language acquisition at different ages. In: Magnusson D, ed. The lifespan development of individuals: Behavioral, neurobiological, and psychosocial perspectives: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996: 244-264.