摘要
英语存在句是二语习得中较为重要的习得句型,而中国英语习得者在笔语中往往不能恰当运用。鉴于此种现状,笔者基于语料库对此句式的使用规律进行了实证性研究:通过将学习者语料库与本族语语料库对比,探索了此种句式在中国习得者与本族语者使用上的不同之处。通过分析这些不同之处,并结合上下文语境,尝试性剖析了造成此句式过度使用、过低使用的各种因素。此项研究的目的在于为中国二语习得者的写作提供一些有益的启示,为英语教师提供一点建议,与此同时,证明并尝试性修正现存的二语习得理论,如输出假设和母语负迁移理论。
此项研究采用了定量和定性研究方法,所使用的文本检索工具为wordsmith 5.0软件。这便于直接检索并统计出那些学习者过低使用、过度使用或错误使用的语言项目。本文基于学习者语料库WECCL和CLEC以及本族语语料库Brown,并通过定量分析,可以看到中国学习者过度使用和过低使用的语言现象。同时通过定性分析,可以看出学习者错误使用的原因。
论文共分五章:第一章为导入部分,简要介绍对“英语存在句使用规律”进行研究的意义、目的及本论文的结构。第二章是研究现状,由于各个流派的研究角度不同,观点较纷杂。为了便于梳理,本章分为九节进行论述。第一节,首先,关于二语习得者习得规律的研究方法进行历时性回顾(如,对比分析、错误分析和中介语对比分析),然后介绍了基于语料库分析二语习得的研究方法。第二节至第九节是对语言学家及语法学家探讨英语存在句的回顾。这一章也探讨了各种方法对英语存在句进行研究的利弊,从而进一步突出了基于语料库研究方法的优点。需要说明的是,第七节列出了英语存在句的分类:标准句式(There+be+非限定性NP(+地点和时间状语)及其变体(变体1:There+情态动词+be/变体2:There+半情态动词+be/变体3:There+半助动词+be/变体4:There+不及物动词)。整篇论文的讨论都围绕这一分类进行。第三章主要描述数据搜集及统计方法。首先,描述了本文研究所用到的各个语料库,然后简明地介绍了检索软件和统计研究方法以及数据搜集步骤。第四章是本文的重点,在系统描述分析了二语习得者过低使用、过度使用和错误使用的例证之后,并较为深入剖析了这三种现象出现的原因。在此过程中,所用到的二语习得理论得以再次证明并尝试性修正。第五章为总结部分,归纳出分析结果并得出结论,然后尝试性地评价了本族语语料库和学习者语料库在英语语法和写作教学中的意义。最后讨论了此研究的局限性并提出进一步研究的建议。
此研究尝试着回答了如下几个问题:
1.英语本族语笔语中实际存在那些存在句句型?
主要是标准句型和变体1。
2.中国二语习得者和英语本族语者在英语存在句的使用上有何不同和相似之处?
共同之处:两者都倾向于使用英语存在句标准句型及其变体1,无论肯定式和否定式都是如此。这些句型的时态都集中在简单现在时和简单过去时上,其他时态很少使用。
不同之处:中国英语习得者更为常用标准句型和变体1的简单现在时,简单过去时的使用频率远远低于本族语者。
3.中国二语习得者是否倾向于过低使用或过度使用某些英语存在句句型?
经检验发现,有十个过度使用、五个过低使用的英语存在句类型:
1)所有过度使用的句型都为现在时态。
中国学习者作为一个整体进行检验时发现的六种过度使用类型为:there is、there are、there will be、there is no、there is not和thereare not
只有中国英语专业学习者过度使用的四种类型为:there's、there'sno、there're和there will be no
2)所有过低使用的句型都为过去时态:There was、There were、Therewas no、there were no和there had been
4.中国英语习得者英语存在句过低使用或过度使用的可能原因是什么?
1)以上六类类型过度使用的原因为:
(1)英语语法书的影响
(2)英语教师和教科书讲解的启示
(3)自由变体
2)英语专业偏爱以上四种类型的原因:
(1)口语输出的副作用:在英语笔语中过度使用了三类缩略式(there's、there's no和there're)。
(2)英语专业学生倾向于使用条件句式。从文本中我们可以发现“if…there will be(no)…”出现频繁。由此可以推断,there will be(no)的过度使用是条件句式使用频繁的必然结果。
3)所有过度使用的句式都是现在时,其原因为:
(1)母语迁移
(2)干扰作用
4)所有过低使用的类型都为过去时态,可以认为这是母语迁移的结果。
In view of the existential sentences' significant role and the difficulties that CL have in using them, we conduct this corpus-based research to investigate the characteristics of existential sentences used by CL. By comparing learner corpora with a native one, we aim to explore the using differences of the existential sentences between CL and the natives. By analyzing these differences and their contexts, we attempt to disclose some underlying factors attributing to existential sentences' overuse, underuse and expect to provide some learning、pedagogical suggestions, and at the same time prove and revise to a certain extent some SLA theories, such as Output Hypothesis and Language Transfer Theory.
The study adopts both quantitative and qualitative empirical methods, with the aid of text retrieval software wordsmith 5.0. Thus we have the immediate access to those linguistic items which are either underused or overused by learners. Based on the quantitative results obtained from the learner corpus WECCL and CLEC, and the native corpora Brown, we will be able to study such phenomena, such as, CL's overuse and underuse. When discussing the possible causes, we employed qualitative method.
The whole thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one is an introduction to the thesis. Chapter two is the literature review consisting of nine sections. Section one is the review of a diachronic analysis of learner English (Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis), and then the method of studying learner English based on corpora is introduced. The second to the ninth section is a review of the previous studies on existential sentences conducted by linguists, and of the explanations in grammar books. In this chapter, we also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches to existential sentences study to find a better way to conduct this study, which is the corpus approach. What should be noted here is that the classification of existential sentences is listed in the seventh section: the Standard pattern (There + be + Indefinite NP (+place or time position adverbial) and its Variants (Variant 1: There + model + be /Variant 2: There + marginal model + be/Variant 3: There + semi-auxiliary + be/Variant 4: There + intransitive verb). Around the patterns of existential sentences the whole thesis is discussed. In Chapter three, the focus turns to the research methodology. Firstly, the corpora employed in the study are described, then we briefly introduce the retrieval software and the statistic test employed in the study, and the procedures of data collection. Chapter Four is the main chapter describing and analyzing systematically the instances and investigates the possible causes of Chinese Learner's underuse、overuse and misuse of the existential sentences. Chapter Five provides a summary of the investigation and highlights its most important findings. And then we attempt to evaluate the pedagogical value of native and learner corpora in EFL grammar and writing teaching. This chapter also discusses limitations of the study and makes some suggestions for further research.
The study has got the answers of the following questions raised at the beginning of the thesis:
1. Which pattern(s) of English existential sentences actually exist in native speakers written materials?
The English existential sentences which actually exist in natives' written materials focus on the standard forms and variant 1 of there-be structures.
2. What are the overall similarities and differences in the use of English existential sentences between Chinese second language learners and the native English speakers?
Both Chinese learners and natives tend to use the standard forms and variant 1 of existential sentences, no matter the positive patterns or the negative ones, and the tenses of these patterns are focused on the simple present tense and simple past tense, other tenses being rarely touched.
The difference: Chinese learners more frequently use simple present tense of the standard form and variant 1, the using frequency of simple past tense being far less than that of the natives.
3. Do Chinese second language learners incline to underuse or overuse some specific existential sentences?
We have checked that there are ten overused types and five underused types of existential sentences.
1) All the overused types are in present tense:
(1) Six overused types common to all Chinese studentsthere is、there are、there will be、there is no、there is not and there are not
(2) Four overused types by Chinese English majors only: there's、there's no、there're and there will be no
2) All the underused types are in past tense:
There was、There were、There was no、there were no and there had been
4. What are the possible causes that underlie the Chinese learners' overuse or underuse of the English existential sentences?
1) The reasons for overusing the above six types:
(1) The side-effect of the Grammar book
(2) The instruction from English teachers and course books
(3) Free variability
2) Four overused types by Chinese English majors only:
(1) The side effect of oral output causes the overuse of three abbreviational types: there's、there's no and there 're.
(2) English majors tend to use adverbial clause of condition. From the files we can see "if... there will be (no)..." appears frequently. So we can infer that the overuse of there will be (no) is the result of the frequently using this conditional clause.
3) The reason why the overused are all types in present tense:
(1) L1 transfer
(2) Interference
4) As to all the underused types, for they are all in past tense, we can attribute this phenomenon to L1 transfer.
引文
Biber,D.& R.Reppen.1998.Comparing native and learner perspectives on English grammar:a study of complement clauses[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman.
Botley,S.P.,A.M.McEnery & A.Wilson(eds.).2000.Multilingual Corpora in Teaching and Research[C].Amsterdam / Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Br(?)e,D.S.& I.E.Pratt-Hartmann.2002.Temporal semantics of prepositions in context[A].In Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Cadiot,P.2002.Schematics and motifs in the semantics of prepositions[A].In Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context [C].Amsterdam / Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Cock,S.D.,S.Granger.,G Leech & T.McEnery.1998.An automated approach to the phrasieon of EFL learners[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman
Curme,G.O.1935.A Grammar of the English Language.Vol.2:Parts of Speech and Accidence.Boston etc.:D.C.Heath & Comp.
Diane Larsen-Freeman & Michael H.Long.2006.An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Douglas Biber&Stig Johansson.2000.Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English[M].Bei Jing:Foreigh Language Teaching and Research Press
Dunning,T.1993.Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence[A].http://www.comp.lanes.ac.uk/ucrel/papers/tedstats.pdf
Ebeling,J.1999.Linking Dictionary and Corpus[A].In Hasselg(?)rd,H.& S.1999.Oksefjell (eds.).Out of Corpora:Studies in Honour of Stig Johansson[C].Amsterdam-Atlanta,GA:Rodopi B.V.
Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).2002.Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Fillmore,C.J.1968.The Case for Case.In E.Bach and R.T.Harms(eds.).Universals in Linguistic Theory.London:Holt,Rinehart & Winston.1-88.
Fillmore,C.J.1969.Towards a Modern Theory of Case.In D.A.Reibel and S.A.Schane (eds.).Modern Studies in English.London:Prentice Hall Inc.361-375.
Foley,M.& D.Hall(eds).2005.Longman Advanced Learners' Grammar:A self-Study Reference and Practice Book with Answers[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Gillard,P.& A.Gadsby.1998.Using a learners' corpus in compiling ELT dictionaries[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman.
Gleason,H.A.1955,1961.Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.New York etc.:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,Inc.
Granger,S.& C.Tdbble.1998.Learner corpus data in the foreign language classroom:form-focused instruction and data-driven learning[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman.
Granger,S.(ed.).1998.Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman
Granger,S.2002.A bird's-eye view of learner corpus research[A].In S.Granger,J.Hung &S.P.Tyson(eds.).Computer Learner Corpora,Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamin's Publishing Company.
Halliday,M.A.K.2000.An Introduction to Functional Grammar(2nd edition)[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Harris,Z.S.1951.Structural Linguistics.Chicago:The University of Chicago Press.
Hasselg(?)rd,H.& S.1999.Oksefjell(eds.).Out of Corpora:Studies in Honour of Stig Johansson[C].Amsterdam-Atlanta,GA:Rodopi B.V.
Herskovits,A.1986.Language and Spatial Cognition:An Interdisciplinary Study of the Prepositions in English[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hoffmann,S.2004.Are low-frequency complex prepositions grammaticalized:on the limits of corpus data and the importance of intuition[A].In H.Lindquist & C.Mair(eds.).Corpus Approaches to Grammaticalization in English[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Hoffmann,S.2005.Grammaticalization and English Complex Prepositions:A Corpus-Based Study[M].London & New York:Routledge.
Kaszubski,P.1998.Enhancing a writing textbook:a national perspective[A].In S.Granger (ed.).Learner Enlish on Computer[C].New York:Longman.
Kennedy G.2000.An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Kettemann,B.& G.Marko(eds.).2002.Teaching and Learning by Doing Corpus Analysis:Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Teaching and Language Corpora,Graz 19-24 July,2000[C].New York:Amsterdam.
K(o|¨)nig,E.& B.Kortmann.1991.On the reanalysis of verbs as prepositions[A].In G.Rauh (ed.).Approaches to Prepositions[C].T(u|¨)bingen:Gunter Narr Verlag.
Kreyer,R.2003.Genitive and of-construction in modern written English.Processablility and human involvement[A].International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 8:2,169-207
Lakoff,G.2007,Ten Lectures on Cognitive Linguistics[M],Foreign Language Teaching and Reseach Press
Lebas,F.2002.The theoretical status of prepositions:The case of the "prospective use" of in [A].In Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context[C].Amsterdam / Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Leech,G.1998.Preface[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman
Leikin,M.2002.Locative prepositions in language acquisition and aphasia[A].In Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context[C].Amsterdam / Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Lindstromberg,S.1998.English Prepositions Explained[M].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Lindstromberg,S.2001.Preposition Entries in UK Monolingual Learners' Dictionaries:Problems and Possible Solutions[A].Applied Linguistics 22/1:79-103
Meunier,F.2002.The pedagogical value of native and learner corpora in EFL grammar teaching[A].In S.Granger,J.Hung & S.P.Tyson(eds.).Computer Learner Corpora,SecondLanguage Acquisition andForeign Language Teaching[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Meyer,G A.1975.The Two-Word Verb:A Dictionary of the Verb-Preposition Phrases in American English[M].Paris:Mouton & Co.B.V.,Publishers,The Hague.
Meyer,R.,M.E.Okurowski & T.Hand.2000.Using authentic corpora and language tools for adult-centered learning[A].In S.P.Botley,A.M.McEnery & A Wilson(eds.).Multilingual Corpora in Teaching and Research[C].Amsterdam-Atlanta,GA:Rodopi B.V.
Milton,J.1998.Exploiting L1 and interlanguage corpora in the design of an electronic language learning and production environment[A].In S.Granger(ed.).Learner English on Computer[C].New York:Longman
Moore,R.C.On log-likelihood-ratios and the significance of rare events[A].http://research.microsoft.com/users/bobmoore/rare-events-final-rev.pdf#search=%22cor pus%20log-likelihood%22
Morley,G.D.2004.Explorations in Functional Syntax:A New Framework for Lexicogrammatical Analysis[M].London:Equinox Publishing Ltd.
Myles,F.2005.Interlangnage corpora and second language acquisition research[J].Second Language Research 21/4:373-391.
O'Dowd,E.M.1998.Prepositions and Particles in English:A Discourse-Functional Account[M].New York:Oxford University Press.
Partington,A.1998.Patterns and Meanings:Using Corpora for English Language Research and Teaching[M].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Peters,C.,E.Picchi & L.Biagini.2000.Parallel and comparable bilingual corpora in language teaching and learning[A].In S.P.Botley,A.M.McEnery & A Wilson(eds.).Multilingual Corpora in Teaching and Research[C].Amsterdam-Atlanta,GA:Rodopi B.V.
Pratt,I.E.& N.Francez.2002.Prepositions and context[A].In Feigenbaum,S.& D.Kurzon(eds.).Prepositions in their Syntactic,Semantic and Pragmatic Context[C].Amsterdam / Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Quirk,R.S.Greenbaum,G.Leech & J.Svartvik(eds.).1985.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M].New York:Longman Inc.
Rauh,G.1991.Prepositional forms in the lexicon:problems and suggestions[A].In G.Rauh (ed.).Approaches to Prepositions[C].T(u|¨)bingen:Gunter Narr Verlag.
Rayson,P.& R.Garside.2000.Comparing corpora using frequency profiling[A].http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/paul/publications/rg_acl2000.pdf
Rayson,P.,D.Berridge & B.Francis.2004.Extending the cochran rule for the comparison of word frequencies between corpora[A].In Volume Ⅱ of Purnelle G.,Fairon C.,Dister A.(eds.) Le poids des roots:Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Statistical analysis of textual data,Louvain-la-Neuve,Belgium,March 10-12,2004,Presses universitaires de Louvaln,pp.926-936.
Rod Ellis,1999,Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M],Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Saint-Dizier,P.(ed.).2006.Syntax and Semantics of Prepositions[C].The Netherlands:Springer.
Sebastian,H.2005.Grammaticalization and English Complex Prepositions:A Corpus-Based Study[M].New York:Routledge.
Sinclair,J.1999a.A Way with Common Words[A].In Hasselg(?)rd,H.& S.Oksefjell(eds.).Out of Corpora:Studies in Honour of Stig Johansson[C].Amsterdam-Atlanta,GA:Rodopi B.V.
Sinclair,J.1999b.Corpus Concordance Collocation[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Langugage Education Press.
Sripicharn,P.2004.Examining native speakers' and learern' investigation of the same concordance data and its implications for classroon concordancing with ELF learners [A].In G.Aston,S.Bernardini & D.Stewart(eds.).Corpus and Language Learners[C].Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Takami,K.1992.Preposition Stranding:From Syntactic to Functional Analyses[M].Berlin:Mouton de Gruyter.
Tyler,A.& V.Evans.2003.The Semantics of English Prepositions:Spatial Scenes,Embodied Meaning and Cognition[M].UK:Cambridge University Press.
Wege,B.1991.On the lexical meaning of prepositions:a study of above,below and over[A].In G.Rauh(ed.).Approaches to Prepositions[C].T(u|¨)bingen:Gunter Narr Verlag.
戴曼纯,2001,最简方案框架下的广义左向合并理论研究[M],外语教学与研究出版社.
戴曼纯、梁毅,2007,中国学生的英语存在句习得研究[J],《外语研究》(6):41-48.
和安平,2006,语料库语言学与英语教学[M],北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
胡壮麟,姜望琪,2002,语言学高级教程[M],北京:北京大学出版社.
黄冰,2004,第二语言习得入门[M],广东:广东高等教育出版社.
高彦梅,2004,功能词的多元语义功能研究[M],北京大学出版社.
桂诗春,2005(a),中国学习者英语言语失误分析[A],《基于CLEC语料库的中国学习者英语分析》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
桂诗春,2005(b),认知与言语失误[A],《基于CLEC语料库的中国学习者英语分析》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
桂诗春,2005(c),中国学习者英语介词使用概述[A],《基于CLEC语料库的中国学习者英语分析》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
雷秀云,2002,《语料库建设及其基本统计手段和原理》[A],《语料库语言学导论》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
李文中,2002,《语料库证据支持的词语搭配研究》[A],《语料库语言学导论》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
刘润清,2005,外语教学中的科研方法[M],北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
濮建忠,2001,《学习者动词行为:基于语料库的中国大学生英语动词使用研究》[D],上海交通大学博士论文.
濮建忠,2005,《基于学习者语料库的中国非英语专业大学生中间语状况调查》[A],《基于CLEC语料库的中国学习者英语分析》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
王国栋,2004,英语深层语法[M],商务印书馆,715-717.
王建新,2005,《计算机语料库的建设与应用》[M],清华大学出版社.
卫乃兴,2005,《典型搭配、中间语搭配和异常搭配:中国学生英语中的语义韵特征研究》[A],《基于CLEC语料库的中国学习者英语分析》,上海:上海外语教育出版社.
文秋芳,王立菲等,2005,中国学生英语口笔语语料库[M],北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
杨连瑞,2007,二语习得研究与中国外语教学[M],上海:上海外语教育出版社.
于善志,2007,二语学习者句式发展研究[M],北京:国防工业出版社.
张今,姜玲,2005,英语句型的动态研究[M],北京:清华大学出版社.
张今,2005,英语句型的动态研究[M],北京:清华大学出版社.
章振邦,2002,新编英语语法概要[M],上海:上海外语教育出版社.
郑银芳,2008,英语存在句的认知语言学解读[J],《外语与外语教学》(3):28-30.
朱武汉,2007,中国英语学习者“存在句”习得之研究[J],《国外外语教学》(1):13-19.
周利娟,1999,“There2”和“It2”句型与主语突出型语言[J]《外语与外语教学》(11):15--17.