几个针叶树种苗木逆境生理研究
|
摘要
本研究以杉木、马尾松苗木为主要研究对象,花旗松、北美乔柏和扭叶松为辅助研究对象,研究了在水分和热胁迫下,生长期间苗木的叶绿素荧光、气体交换参数、水分利用效率、糖代谢,生长和生物量等指标的反应,同时研究了剪根、剪叶、失水、冷冻等环境胁迫对起苗到造林期间苗木质量的影响,结果如下:(1)热和水分胁迫对杉木、马尾松和北美乔柏三个树种的叶绿素荧光有显著影响,可用Fv/Fm来预测苗木遭受胁迫的程度。(2)水分胁迫使杉木、马尾松和北美乔柏三个树种的净光合速率显著下降。但热胁迫只影响杉木和北美乔柏的净光合速率,对马尾松的净光合速率影响不大。热和水分胁迫均对马尾松苗木针叶气孔导度有显著影响,但对杉木和北美乔柏苗木针叶的气孔导度只有轻微影响。(3)水分胁迫处理对杉木、马尾松、花旗松和北美乔柏4个树种的稳定碳同位素的组成(δ13C值)均有显著影响,随着水分胁迫程度的加深,4个树种苗木针叶的δ13C 值增大(负值变小),说明其永久水分利用效率更高。热胁迫对杉木和北美乔柏苗木针叶的δ13C 值有显著影响,且在热胁迫下,两树种苗木针叶的δ13C 值减小(负值增大),即永久水分利用效率下降。但热胁迫对马尾松和花旗松苗木的δ13C值没有显著影响。(4)水分胁迫对杉木、马尾松、花旗松、北美乔柏和扭叶松五个树种的苗高增长量和增长百分率均有显著影响,但影响的程度因树种而异。热胁迫对苗木高生长和高生长百分率也有一定影响,但不如水分胁迫的影响大。(5)水分胁迫处理对杉苗的生物量指标影响不大,但热胁迫对杉苗生物量所有三个指标均有显著影响。(6)水分和热胁迫处理对杉木针叶果糖含量的影响显著性不强,但对杉木针叶葡萄糖和蔗糖的含量却有显著影响。随着胁迫程度的加深,杉木针叶的葡萄糖和蔗糖含量提高。水分胁迫处理对马尾松苗木针叶葡萄糖和蔗糖含量的影响显著,而热胁迫则对葡萄糖和果糖含量影响显著。水分和热胁迫处理对马尾松苗木针叶三种可溶性糖含量的影响均呈上升趋势。(7)剪根、剪叶等处理对杉木、马尾松苗木根生长势有显著影响,随着对苗木伤害的加深,苗木根生长势下降。(8)苗木根生长势随着晾晒失水时间的延长显著下降,当晾晒失水时间达到4h,失水率26.09%时,杉木苗新根生长点数量和>1cm 长新根数量分别下降67.51%和63.82%。当晾晒失水时间达到4h,失水率28.83%时,马尾松苗木新根生长点数量和>1cm长新根数量分别下降80.65%和87.63%。不同程度的失水处理对杉木、马尾松苗木的造林成活率有显著影响。杉苗在晾晒2h后成活率仅有40.3%,而当晾晒达7h,造林成活率8.1%。马尾松苗造林成活率在晾晒2h 后成活率为45.0%,晾晒4h后成活率为30.5%,当晾晒7h,苗木造林后全部死亡。(9)根系活力(脱氢酶活性)随晾晒失水时间的延长显著下降。根系脱氢酶活性与苗木水势,根生长势(RGP)和造林成活率的相关关系极为显著。(10)冷冻处理后的苗木针叶浸出液电导率明显高于对照,根系脱氢酶活性明显低于对照。
Effects of water and heat stress treatments on Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm),Gas exchange, Carbon isotope composition; Sugar contents ,seedling height and biomass of Chinese fir, Masson pine, Douglas fir ,western redcedar and lodgepole pine seedlings were measured during a three cycle stress period in spring 2001 at The University of British Columbia. And the effects of shoot pruning, root cutting, exposure to sunny field as well as freezing treatments on root growth potential, seedling survival rate, electrolyte conductivity and activity of dehydrogenase of 1-0 Chinese fir and Masson pine bareroot seedlings before planting were also conducted in spring 2000 at Nanjing Forestry University. The results were shown as follow:
(1)Fv/Fm ratios of Chinese fir, Masson pine and western redcedar had different responses to water stress treatments. The Fv/Fm ratio of western redcedar decreased dramatically after water stress treatments while that of Chinese fir had only a slight reduction and that of Masson pine had no significant change. The experiment also showed that the Fv/Fm ratio of all three species differs significantly under heat stress treatments. Concerning three different water and heat stress cycles, it was found that the Fv/Fm ratios of Chinese fir and Masson pine measured at the end of each water and heat stress cycle was not significantly different. However, the Fv/Fm ratio of Western redcedar was diminished significantly in response to an increase of stress time.
(2)After 36 days water stress treatments, the net photosynthesis of all three species including Chinese fir, Masson pine and Western rededar decreased significantly. But heat stress only affects the net photosynthesis of Chinese fir and Western redcedar. It was only be observed that the needle conductance to water vapor of Masson pine was significantly affected by both water and heat stress treatment. The needle conductance to water vapor of other species has just a slight change after water and heat stress treatment. Therefore, instantaneous water use efficiency, which was expressed as the ratio of A/ gwv, has no significant difference except for masson pine.
(3)Different levels of water stress treatments in Chinese fir only slightly influenced seedling biomass. There is no significant difference in root dry weight under different level of water stress treatment. The biomass of Chinese fir, however, was dramatically affected under heat stress treatment. All four biomass indexes have significant difference under different levels of heat stress treatments. Masson pine, another subtropical tree species, showed significant difference in all biomass indexes under both water and heat stress treatment except for root/shoot ratio (dry weight) under heat stress treatments. Douglas fir showed that its four biomass indexes were significantly effected by heat stress treatment but not by water stress treatments. The western redcedar also showed that the heat stress influenced its biomass much stronger than water stress did. Lodgepole pine, had the similar trend to tolerate heat and water stress treatment as redcedar and Douglas fir. All its biomass indexes had no significant different under water stress treatments but there are differences observed under heat stress treatments.
(4)There are significant differences in carbon isotope composition(δ(13)~C) among four species
including Chinese fir, Masson pine, Douglas fir and Western redcedar under water stress treatments. Along with the prolong of water stress, the value of carbon isotope composition(δ13C) of all four species increased. This means that the Water Use Efficiency (WUE) will be improved under water stress treatments. Heat stress treatment had also significant effects on carbon isotope composition(δ13C) of Chinese fir and western redcedar. But the differences of carbon isotope composition(δ13C) did not be observed under heat stress in Masson pine and Douglas fir. (5)There is no significant difference of Fructose in Chinese fir needles under water and heat stress treatment. But it was observed that there are significant differences of Sucrose and Glucose in Chinese fir needles under water and heat stress and the value of Sucrose and Glucose was found to increase under water and heat stress. Water stress had significant effects on Sucrose and Glucose contents in Masson pine needles while heat stress had significant effects on Fructose and Glucose contents in Masson pine needles. And It was shown that All three sugars were found to increase under water and heat stress in Masson pine. (6)Both shoot pruning and root cutting treatments have a significant effects on root growth potential of Chinese fir and Masson pine , but the changing extent of root growth potential is different between two species. The results also showed that root growth potential of both species will decreased rapidly after exposure only a few hours to sunny field. We also carried out a correlation analysis between seedling morphological indexes and root growth potential and the results told us that most of morphological indexes of both species have significant relationship with root growth potential. Finally, The relationship analysis between seedling density and root growth potential showed no regular relationship between them. (7)Needle Electrolyte conductivity of Chinese fir and Masson pine has a big increase after freezing treatment and there are no significant differences of needle electrolyte conductivity between two species. The fine root activities of dehydrogenase of both Chinese fir and Masson pine are significantly correlated with the intensity of freezing and desiccation. We suggested that both electrolyte conductivity and activity of dehydrogenase could be used as quick indicators of Chinese fir and Masson pine bare-root seedling quality. (8) Root growth potential and field survival decreased along with prolonging duration of exposure. to sunny field. –1.60Mpa and –1.70Mpa are suggested critical values of Chinese fir and Masson pine respectively for successful reforestation.
Effects of water and heat stress treatments on Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm),Gas exchange, Carbon isotope composition; Sugar contents ,seedling height and biomass of Chinese fir, Masson pine, Douglas fir ,western redcedar and lodgepole pine seedlings were measured during a three cycle stress period in spring 2001 at The University of British Columbia. And the effects of shoot pruning, root cutting, exposure to sunny field as well as freezing treatments on root growth potential, seedling survival rate, electrolyte conductivity and activity of dehydrogenase of 1-0 Chinese fir and Masson pine bareroot seedlings before planting were also conducted in spring 2000 at Nanjing Forestry University. The results were shown as follow:
(1)Fv/Fm ratios of Chinese fir, Masson pine and western redcedar had different responses to water stress treatments. The Fv/Fm ratio of western redcedar decreased dramatically after water stress treatments while that of Chinese fir had only a slight reduction and that of Masson pine had no significant change. The experiment also showed that the Fv/Fm ratio of all three species differs significantly under heat stress treatments. Concerning three different water and heat stress cycles, it was found that the Fv/Fm ratios of Chinese fir and Masson pine measured at the end of each water and heat stress cycle was not significantly different. However, the Fv/Fm ratio of Western redcedar was diminished significantly in response to an increase of stress time.
(2)After 36 days water stress treatments, the net photosynthesis of all three species including Chinese fir, Masson pine and Western rededar decreased significantly. But heat stress only affects the net photosynthesis of Chinese fir and Western redcedar. It was only be observed that the needle conductance to water vapor of Masson pine was significantly affected by both water and heat stress treatment. The needle conductance to water vapor of other species has just a slight change after water and heat stress treatment. Therefore, instantaneous water use efficiency, which was expressed as the ratio of A/ gwv, has no significant difference except for masson pine.
(3)Different levels of water stress treatments in Chinese fir only slightly influenced seedling biomass. There is no significant difference in root dry weight under different level of water stress treatment. The biomass of Chinese fir, however, was dramatically affected under heat stress treatment. All four biomass indexes have significant difference under different levels of heat stress treatments. Masson pine, another subtropical tree species, showed significant difference in all biomass indexes under both water and heat stress treatment except for root/shoot ratio (dry weight) under heat stress treatments. Douglas fir showed that its four biomass indexes were significantly effected by heat stress treatment but not by water stress treatments. The western redcedar also showed that the heat stress influenced its biomass much stronger than water stress did. Lodgepole pine, had the similar trend to tolerate heat and water stress treatment as redcedar and Douglas fir. All its biomass indexes had no significant different under water stress treatments but there are differences observed under heat stress treatments.
(4)There are significant differences in carbon isotope composition(δ(13)~C) among four species
including Chinese fir, Masson pine, Douglas fir and Western redcedar under water stress treatments. Along with the prolong of water stress, the value of carbon isotope composition(δ13C) of all four species increased. This means that the Water Use Efficiency (WUE) will be improved under water stress treatments. Heat stress treatment had also significant effects on carbon isotope composition(δ13C) of Chinese fir and western redcedar. But the differences of carbon isotope composition(δ13C) did not be observed under heat stress in Masson pine and Douglas fir. (5)There is no significant difference of Fructose in Chinese fir needles under water and heat stress treatment. But it was observed that there are significant differences of Sucrose and Glucose in Chinese fir needles under water and heat stress and the value of Sucrose and Glucose was found to increase under water and heat stress. Water stress had significant effects on Sucrose and Glucose contents in Masson pine needles while heat stress had significant effects on Fructose and Glucose contents in Masson pine needles. And It was shown that All three sugars were found to increase under water and heat stress in Masson pine. (6)Both shoot pruning and root cutting treatments have a significant effects on root growth potential of Chinese fir and Masson pine , but the changing extent of root growth potential is different between two species. The results also showed that root growth potential of both species will decreased rapidly after exposure only a few hours to sunny field. We also carried out a correlation analysis between seedling morphological indexes and root growth potential and the results told us that most of morphological indexes of both species have significant relationship with root growth potential. Finally, The relationship analysis between seedling density and root growth potential showed no regular relationship between them. (7)Needle Electrolyte conductivity of Chinese fir and Masson pine has a big increase after freezing treatment and there are no significant differences of needle electrolyte conductivity between two species. The fine root activities of dehydrogenase of both Chinese fir and Masson pine are significantly correlated with the intensity of freezing and desiccation. We suggested that both electrolyte conductivity and activity of dehydrogenase could be used as quick indicators of Chinese fir and Masson pine bare-root seedling quality. (8) Root growth potential and field survival decreased along with prolonging duration of exposure. to sunny field. –1.60Mpa and –1.70Mpa are suggested critical values of Chinese fir and Masson pine respectively for successful reforestation.
引文
[1] 曹福亮等1999 盐胁迫对南方主要造林树种生理特性的影响中国南方主要造林树种耐盐耐旱机理研究中国林业出版社
[2] 陈立松等1999 水分胁迫对荔枝叶片糖代谢的影响及其与抗旱性的关系热带作物学报20(2):31-36
[3] 冯玉龙等1999 长白落叶松生理生态特性的CO2 响应及意义植物研究19(1):53-59
[4] 高玉葆等1999 黑麦草叶内游离脯氨酸含量对于不同类型和强度的水分胁迫的生理生态响应植物生态学报23(3):193-204
[5] 李保国等1990 果树光合作用研究进展河北林学院学报5(3):254-261
[6] 李吉跃等1999 多重复干旱循环对苗木气体交换和水分利用效率的影响北京林业大学学报21(3):1-8
[7] 李秧秧1998 不同水分利用效率的高羊茅水分和光合特性研究草业科学15(1):14-17
[8] 李银芳等1999 箭干杨农田防护林合理灌溉的林木糖代谢分析干旱区资源与环境13(2):84-89
[9] 刘勇1994 中国北方主要针叶造林树种苗木质量的研究北京林业大学博士学位论文
[10] 孟焕文等2000 黄瓜幼苗对热胁迫的生理反应及耐热鉴定指标筛选西北农业学报9(1):96-99
[11] 彭方仁等1997 板栗密植园树冠结构特征与光能分布规律研究南京林业大学学报21(2):27-31
[12] 沈惠娟等1999 渗透胁迫下多效唑对刺槐幼苗体内多胺、脯氨酸和保护酶系统的影响中国南方主要造林树种耐盐耐旱机理研究中国林业出版社
[13] 王丽华1999 不同地理种源长白落叶松生理生态特性的研究植物研究19(2):165-171
[14] 王沙生等1991 植物生理学中国林业出版社
[15] 薛惠勤等1999 干旱条件下花生水分利用效率与叶片碳同位素辨别力的相关性研究中国油料作物学报21(1):27-34
[16] 喻方圆徐锡增2000 苗木生理与质量研究进展世界林业研究13(4):17-24
[17] 张英普何武权韩健1999 水分胁迫对玉米生理生态特性的影响西北水资源与水工程10(3):18-21.
[18] 张守仁等1998 白杨派新无性系气孔生理生态特性的研究生态学报18(4):358-363
[19] 邹琦1995 植物生理生化实验指导中国农业出版社
[20] Abrams,M.D. 1988. Sources of variation in osmotic potentials with special reference to North American tree species. For. Sci. 34:1030-1046.
[21] Abrams, M.D., 1994. Genotypic and Phenotypic variation as stress adaptations in temperate tree species: a review of several case studies Tree Physiol. 14: 833-842.
[22] Acevedo, E., E. Fereres, T.C. Hsiao, and D.W. Henderson 1979 Diurnal growth trends, water potential, and osmotic adjustment of maize and sorghum leaves in the field. Plant Physiol. 64: 476-480.
[23] Aldhous, J.R. 1972. Nursery practice. For. Comm. Bull. 43. H.M.S.O. London.
[24] Alexander,J.D., Donnelly,J.R., and Shane,J.B. 1995. Photosynthetic and transpirational responses of red spruce understory trees to light and temperature. Tree Physiol. 15: 393-398.
[25] AI-Hamdani, S., Murphy, J.M., and Todd, G.W. 1991. Stomatal conductance and CO2 assimilation as screening tools for drought resistance in sorghum. Can.J.Plant Sci. 71: 689-694.
[26] Allen, J.A. 1992. Cypress-tupelo swamp restoration in southern Louisiana. Restor. Manage. Notes 10: 188-189.
[27] Allen, J.A., J.L. Chambers and M. Stine 1994. Prospects for increasing the salt tolerance of forest trees: a review Tree Physiol. 14: 843-853.
[28] Amundson, R.G., R.J.Kohut, J.A. Laurence, S.Fellows, and L.J.Colavito 1993 Moderate water stress alters carbohydrate content and cold tolerance of red spruce foliage. Environ. Exp. Bot. 33: 383-390.
[29] Auchmoody, L.R. and R.S. Walters. 1988. Revegetation of a brine-killed forest site. Soil Sci.Soc.Am.J. 52: 277-280.
[30] Balneaves, J.M. and Menzies, M. I. 1988. Lifting and handling procedures at Edendale Nursery-effects on survival and growth of 1/0 Pinus radiata seedlings. N.Z.J.For.Sci. 18:132-134.
[31] Berrang, P. C. et al 1986 Seasonal changes in the cold tolerance of Pitch pine, Can. J. For. Res. 16: 408-410.
[32] Binder, W. D. et al 1990 Temperature and time related variation of root growth in some conifer tree species, Can. J. For. Res. 20:1192-1199.
[33] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1995 Heat damage in boxed white spruce (Picea glauca[Moench.] Voss) seedlings: Its pre-planting detection and effect on field performance. New Forests 9: 237-259.
[34] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1996a. Seasonal changes in chlorophyll fluorescence of white spruce seedlings from different latitudes in relation to gas exchange and winter storability. New Forests 11: 207-232.
[35] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1996b. Chlorophyll fluorescence as an indicator of frost hardiness in white spruce seedlings from different latitudes. New Forests 11: 233-253.
[36] Bj?rkman, O. & Demming, B. 1987. Photon yield of O2 evolution and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics at 77K among vascular plants of diverse origins. Planta 170:489-504.
[37] Bongarten, B.C. and R.O. Teskey. 1987. Dry weight partitioning and its relationship to productivity in loblolly pine seedlings from seven sources. For. Sci. 33: 255-267.
[38] Brissette J.C. and T.C. Roberts 1984. Seedling size and lifting date effects on root growth potential of loblolly pine from two Arkanasas nurseries. Tree Planters’Notes 35: 34-38.
[39] Burdett, A.N. 1990. Physiological processes in plantation establishment and the development of specifications for forest planting stock. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 415-427.
[40] Burr, K. E. et al 1986 Comparison of four cold hardiness tests on three western conifers, USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-137: 87-95.
[41] Burr, K.E., et al 1993 Heat tolerance, cold tolerance, and bud dormancy relationships in seedlings of selected conifers. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 118: 840-844.
[42] Cannell M.G.R. et al 1990 Sitke spruce and Douglas fir seedlings in the nursery and in cold storage: Root Growth potential , Carbohydrate content, Dormancy , Frost hardiness and Mitotic index, Forestry 63(1) 10-27.
[43] Carlson, W.C. 1986. Root system considerations in the quality of loblolly seedlings. Southern J. Appl. For. 10: 87-92.
[44] Carlson, W.C. 1991 Lifting, storing and transporting southern pine seedlings, pp. 291-302. In: Duera, M.L. and Dougherty, P. M. (Eds) Forest Regeneration Manual. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[45] Cheung,Y.N.S., M.T.Tyree, and J. Dainty. 1975. Water relation parameters on single leaves obtained in a pressure bomb and some ecological interpretations. Canadian journal of botany 53: 1342-1346.
[46] Choi, H.S. 1992. Variation in water potential components among half-sib families of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) in response to soil drought. Can.J.For.Res. 22:111-116.
[47] Colombo, S.J. and C. Glerum 1984. Winter injury to shoots as it affects root activity in black spruce container seedlings Can. J. For. Res. 14: 31-32.
[48] Colombo, S. J. et al 1989 Winter hardening in first year black spruce (Picea mariana) seedlings, physiol. Plant 76:1-9.
[49] Colombo, S.J. and Timmer, V.R. 1992 Limits of tolerance to high temperature causing direct and indirect damage to black spruce. Tree Physiol. 11: 95-104.
[50] Colombo, S.J. 1994 Timing of cold temperature exposure affects root and shoot frost hardiness of Picea mariana container seedlings. Scan, J. for. Res. 9:52-59.
[51] Coutts, M.P. 1981 Effects of root or shoot exposure before planting on the water relations, growth, and survival of Sitka spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 11:703-709.
[52] Cregg, B.M. 1993. Seed source variation in water relations, gas exchange, and needle morphology of mature ponderosa pine trees. Can. J. For.Res. 23: 749-755.
[53] Cregg, B.M. 1994. Carbon allocation, gas exchange, and needle morphology of pinus ponderosa genotypes known to differ in growth and survival under imposed drought. Tree physiol. 14: 883-898.
[54] Deans, J.D. et al 1990a. The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold storage on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry 63: 129-141.
[55] Deans, J.D. et al 1990b. The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold stroge on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry 63: 129-141.
[56] Delucia, E.H., Schlesinger, W.H., and Billings, W.D. 1989. Edaphic limitations to growth and photosynthesis in Sierran and Great basin vegetation. Oecologia 78:184-190.
[57] Dewald, L.E. and Feret, P.A. 1987. Changes in loblolly pine root growth potential from September to April. Can. J. For. Res. 17: 635-543.
[58] Dexter, S. T. et al 1930 Preliminary results in measuring the hardiness of plants, Plant physiol. 5:315-223.
[59] Dexter, S. T. et al 1932 Investigation on the hardiness of plants by measurement of electrical conductivity, plant physiol. 7: 63-78.
[60] Dochinger, L.S. and A.M.Townsend. 1979. Effects of roadside deicer salts and ozone on red maple progenies. Environ. Poll. 29: 229-237.
[61] Eastman, P.K. and E. L. Camm. 1995. Regulation of photosynthesis in interior spruce during water stress: changes in gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence. Tree physiol. 15:229-235.
[62] Epron, D. and E. Dreyer. 1992. Effects of severe dehydration on leaf photosynthesis in Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.: photosystem II efficiency, photochemical and non photochemical fluorescence quenchings and electrolyte leakage. Tree Physiol. 10: 273-284.
[63] Epron, D. and E. Dreyer. 1993. Photosynthesis of oka leaves under water stress: maintenance of high photochemical efficiency of photosystem II and occurrence of non-uniform CO2 assimilation. Tree Physiol. 13: 107-117.
[64] Fan,S., and Grossnickle, S.C., and Sutton, B.C.S. 1997. Relationship between gas exchange adaptations of Sitka×interior spruce genotypes and ribosomal DNA markers. Tree physiol. 17:115-123.
[65] Farquhar G.D. and Richards R.A. 1984 Isotope composition of plant carbon correlates with water use efficiency of wheat genotypes. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 11: 539-552.
[66] Feret, P.P., Kreh,R.E. and Mulligan, C. 1985. Effects of air drying on survival, height and root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings. Southern J. Appl. For. 9:125-128.
[67] Flanagan, L.B., and Johnsen, K.H. 1995. Genetic variation in carbon isotope discrimination and its relationship to growth under field conditions in full-sib families of Picea mariana. Can. J. For. Res. 25: 39-47.
[68] Flint,H.L., Boyce,B.R. and Beattie, D.J. 1967. Index of injury-A useful expression of freezing injury to plant tissues as determined by the electrolytic method. Can.J. Plant Sci. 47:229-230.
[69] Geacintov, N. E. et al 1987 Energy transfer and fluorescence mechanism in photosynthetic membranes in: CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 55: 1-44. Chemical rubber company Boca Raton Florida.
[70] Genty, B., J.M. Briantais and J.B. Vieira da Silva. 1987. Effects of drought on primary photosynthetic processes of cotton leaves. Plant Physiol. 83:360-364.
[71] Gillies, S.L. 1993. A physiological study of fall dormancy and spring reactivation of photosynthesis in seedlings of white spruce [ Picea glauca (Moench ) Voss ] and Douglas fir [ Pseudotsuga menziesii ( Mirb.) ]. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. Canada.
[72] Glerum C. 1985 Frost hardiness of coniferous seedlings: principles and applications in Duryea M.L.(eds) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive abilities of major tests proceedings of the workshop held October 16-18, 1984 ,Oregon state university.
[73] Greenway, H. and R.A. Munns. 1980. Mechanisms of salt tolerance in non-halophytes. Annu.Rev.Plant Physiol. 31: 149-190.
[74] Grossnickle S.C., and Reid, C.P.P. 1985. Environment and physiological control of stomatal response of Picea engelmannii seedlings on a high elevation mine site. Ecol. Plant. 6:111-123.
[75] Grossnickle S.C., and Blake, T.J. 1987. Water relations and morphological development of bare-root jack pine and white spruce seedlings: seedlings establishment on a boreal cut over site. For. Ecol. Manage. 18:299-318.
[76] Grossnickle S.C., and Heikurinen, J. 1989. Site preparation: water relations and growth of outplanted jack pine and white spruce. New For. 3:99-123.
[77] Grossnickle, S. C., and Folk, R.S. 1993. Stock quality assessment: forecasting survival or performance on a reforestation site. Tree Planters’Notes, 44: 113-121.
[78] Grossnickle S.C., and Major, J.E. 1994. Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. II. Stock quality assessment prior to field planting. Can. J. For. Res. 24:1385-1396.
[79] Grossnickle S.C. 2000 Ecophysiology of northern spruce species, The performance of planted seedlings NRC Research Press Ottawa 2000.
[80] Guehl, J.M., A. Clement, P. Kaushal, and G. Aussenac 1993. Planting stress, water status and non-structural carbohysrate concentrations in Corsican pine seedlings. Tree Physiol. 12: 173-183.
[81] Havaux, M. 1992. Stress tolerance of photosystem II in vivo Antagonistic effects of water, heat, and photoinhibition stresses. Plant physiol. 100: 424-432.
[82] Hawkins, C.D.B. and G.R.Lister. 1985. In vitro chlorophyll fluorescence as a possible indicator of the dormancy state in Douglas-fir seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 607-612.
[83] Hawkins, C.D.B. and Binder, W.D. 1990. State of the art seedling stock quality based on seedling physiology, pp. 91-122. In: Rose, R., Campbell, S.J. and Landis, T.D. (Eds) Target Seedling Symposium: Proc. Combined Meet. Western For. Nursery Assoc., US Dep. Agric. For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200, Fort Collins, CO. Chap. 8.
[84] Hermann,R.K. 1967. Seasonal variation in the sensitivity of Douglas fir seedlings to exposure of roots. For. Sci. 13:140-149.
[85] Hipkins, M. F. et al (eds) 1986 Photosynthesis energy transduction: A practical approach, IRL press, Oxford.
[86] Insley,H. and Buckley,G.P. 1985. The influence of desiccation and root pruning on the survival and growth of broadleaved seedlings. J. Hort. Sci. 60:377-387.
[87] Johnsen, K. H., Feret, P. P. and Seiler, J. R. 1988. Root growth potential and shoot activity of northern and southern provenances of 1-0 eastern white pine seedlings grown in a virginia nursery. Can. J. For. Res. 18:610-614.
[88] Jones, M.M., C.B.Osmond, and N.C. Turner 1980 Accumulation of solutes in leaves of sorghum and sunflower in response to water deficits. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 7: 193-205.
[89] Kaiser, W.M. 1987. Effects of water deficit on photosynthetic capacity. Physiol. Plant. 71:142-149.
[90] Kaufmann,M.R. 1979. Stomatal control and the development of water deficit in Engelmann spruce seedlings during drought. Can.J.For.Res. 9:297-304.
[91] Kauppi, P. 1984. Stress, strain and injury: Scots pine transplants from lifting to acclimation on the planting site. Acta. For. Fenn. 185:1-49.
[92] Kolb, T. E. et al 1985 Seasonal and genetic variations in loblolly pine cold tolerance, For. Sci. 31: 926-932.
[93] Koppenaal, R.S., Tschaplinski, T.J., and Colombo, S.J. 1991. Carbohydrate accumulation and turgor maintenance in seedling shoots and roots of two boreal conifers subjected to water stress. Can. J. Bot. 69: 2522-2528.
[94] Kozlowski T.T., Kramer P.J. and Pallardy S.G. 1991. The physiological ecology of woody plants Academic press, inc. San Diego, California.
[95] Lamhamedi, M.S., and Bernier, P.Y. 1994. Ecophysiology and field performance of black spruce(Picea mariana): a review. Ann.For.Sci.(Paris), 51: 529-551.
[96] Lamontagne, M.; Bigras, F.J. and Margolis H.A. 2000. Chlorophyll fluorescence and co2 assimilation of black spruce seedlings following frost in different temperature and light conditions. Tree Physiol. 20: 249-255.
[97] Landis, T. D., Skakel, S.G. 1988. Root growth potential as an indicator of out planting performance: problems and perspectives. In: Proc. Combined Western Nursery Council: 106-110. Forest Nursery Assn. Meeting, 1988 August 8-11, Vernon, British Columbia.
[98] Langerud, B.R., Puttonen, P. and Troeng, E. 1991. Viability of Picea abies seedlings with damaged roots and shoots. Scand. J. For. Res. 6: 59-72.
[99] Levitt,J. 1980. Response of plants to environmental stress. Vol. I. Chilling, freezing and high temperature stress. Academic Press, New York.
[100] Lindstr?m, A. and Nystr?m, C. 1987. Seasonal variation in root hardiness of container-grown Scots pine, Norway spruce, and lodgepole pine seedlings Can. J. For. Res. 17: 789-793.
[101] Livingston,N.J., Guy, R.D., Sun, Z.J., and Ethier, G.J. 1999. The effects of nitrogen stress on the stable carbon isotope composition, productivity and water use efficiency of white spruce (Picea glauca(Moench)Voss) seedlings. Plant Cell Environ. 22: 281-289.
[102] Lopushinsky,W., and Klock, G.O. 1974. Transpiration of conifer seedlings in relation to soil water potential. For.Sci. 20: 181-186.
[103] Lopushinsky, W. 1990. Seedling moisture status, pp. 123-128. In:Rose,R.,Campbell, S.J. and Landis, T.D. (Eds) 1990 Target Seedling Symposium, Proceedings, Combined Meetings of the Western Forest Nursery Associations. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-200.
[104] Margolis, H.A. and Brand, D.G. 1990. An ecophysiological basis for understanding plantation establishment. Can.J.For.Res. 20: 375-390.
[105] Marx, D.H. and Hatchell, G.E. 1987. Root stripping of ectomycorrhizae decreases field performance of loblolly and longleaf pine seedlings. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 10: 173-179.
[106] Mathur, N.K. and A.K. Sharma. 1984. Eucalyptus in reclamation of saline and alkaline soils in India. India For. 110:9-15.
[107] McCreary, D. D. and Duryea, M.L. 1987. Predicting field performance of Douglas fir seedlings: comparison of root growth potential, vigour and plant moisture stress. New Forests 3:153-169.
[108] Mckay,H.M. and Mason,W.L. 1991. Physiological indicators of tolerance to cold storage in Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedlings. Can.J.For.Res. 21: 890-901.
[109] Mckay,H.M. 1992. Electrolyte leakage from fine roots of conifer seedlings: a rapid index of plant vitality following cold storage. Can.J.For.Res. 22:1371-1377.
[110] Mckay, H.M., Gardiner, B.A., Mason, W.L., Nelson, D.G. and Hollingsworth, M.K. 1993 The Gravitational forces generated by dropping plants and the response of Sitka spruce seedlings to dropping. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 2443-2451.
[111] Mckay, H.M. 1994. Frost hardiness and cold-storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi and pinus sylvestris bare root seedlings Scand. J. For, Res. 9: 203-213.
[112] McKay, H.M. 1997. A review of the effect of stresses between lifting and planting on nursery stock quality and performance. New Forests 13:369-399.
[113] Mckay, H.M. and White, I.M.S. 1997. Fine root electrolyte leakage and moisture content: indices of Sitka spruce and Douglas fir seedling performance after desiccation. New Forests 13:139-162.
[14]dlindlindlindlindlindlindlindlin Net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance of red spruce twigs before and after detachment. Can.J.For.Res. 32: 716-721.
[115] Mitchell, C.A. 1994 Recent advances in plant response to mechanical stress: theory and application Hort. Sciences 29:571.
[116] Mohammed, G.H., Binder, W.D. and Gillies, S. 1995. Chlorophyll fluorescence: A reviews of its practical forestry applications and instrumentation. Scan. J. For. Res. 10: 383-410.
[117] Munns, R. and A. Termaat. 1986. Whole plant responses to salinity. Aust.J.Plant Physiol. 13: 143-160.
[118] Olivas-Garcia J.M., B.M. Cregg., and Thomas C.H. 2000. Genotypic variation in carbon isotope discrimination and gas exchange of ponderosa pine seedlings under two levels of water stress. Can. J. For. Res. 30: 1581-1590.
[119] Oquist, G. & Wass, R. 1988. A portable, microprocessor operated instrument for measuring chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics in stress physiology. Physiol. Plant. 73: 211-217.
[120] Osório J. and Pereira J.S. 1994. Genotypic difference in water use efficiency and 13C discrimination in Eucalyptus globulus Tree Physiol. 14: 871-882.
[121] Parker, J. 1953 Some application and limitations of tetrazolium chloride, Science 118: 77-79.
[122] Pasternak, D. 1987. Salt tolerance and crop production-a comprehensive approach. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 25:271-291.
[123] Patterson, T.B., Guy,R.D., and Dang, Q.L. 1997. Whole-plant nitrogen and water relations traits, and their associated trade-off, in adjacent muskeg and upland boreal spruce species. Oecologia, 110:160-168.
[124] Puttonen, P., and Arnott, J.T. 1994. Influence of photoperiod and temperature on growth, gas exchange and cold hardiness of yellow cypress stecklings. Can.J.For.Res. 24: 1608-1616.
[125] Raymond, C. A. et al 1986 A conductivity method for screening populations of Eucalyptus for frost damage and frost tolerance, Aust. J. Bot. 34: 377-393.
[126] Ritchie, G. A., and Dunlap, J.R. 1980. Root growth potential: its development and expression in forest tree seedlings. N. Z. J. For. Sci. 10:218-248.
[127] Ritchie, G.A., 1985 Root growth potential: principles, procedures and predictive ability, pp. 93-105. In: Duryea, M.L.(Ed) proc. of workshop evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive abilities of major tests. Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA.
[128] Ritchie, G. A. 1986 Relationship among bud dormancy status, cold hardiness, and stress resistance in 290 Douglas fir, New For. 1: 29-42.
[129] Ritchie, G.A., and Tanaka, Y. 1990. Root growth potential and the target seedling. In: R. Rose, S.J. Campbell, and T.D. Landis (Edited). 1990 Target seedling Symposium: Proceedings of the Western Forest Nursery Associations. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200. Pp. 37-51.
[130] Roberts, L. W. 1951 Survey of factors responsible in reduction of 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride in plant tissues, Science 113: 692-693.
[131] Roberts, L. W. 1957 Eliminating technically induced variations in the tetrazolium reaction in plant material, Stain Technol. 32:98-99.
[132] Sakai, A. 1978, Low temperature exotherms of Winter buds of hardy confiers, plant and cell physiology 19: 1439-1446.
[133] Scholander, P.F., H.T.Hammel, E.A. Hemmingsen, and E.D. Bradstreet. 1964. Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic potentials in leaves of mangroves and some other plants. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci. USA 51: 119-125.
[134] Scholander,P.F., H.T.Hammel, E.D. Bradstreet and E.A. Seiler, J.R. and B.H.Cazell, 1990. Influence of water stress on the physiology and growth of red spruce seedlings. Tree physiology 6:69-77.
[135] Schreiber, U. and J. A. Berry. 1977. Heat-induced changes of chlorophyll fluorescence in intact leaves correlated with damage of the photosynthetic apparatus. Planta 136:233-238.
[136] Schreiber, U. and Bilger, W. 1993. 3: Progress in chlorophyll fluorescence research: major developments during the past years in retrospect. Prog. Bot. 54: 151-173.
[137] Schreiber, U., Bilger, W. and Neubauer, C. 1994. Chlorophyll fluorescence as a non-destructive indicator for rapid assessment of in vivo photosynthesis. Ecol. Stud. 100: 49-70.
[138] Schulze, E.D. 1986. Carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange in response to drought in the atmosphere and in the soil. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 37: 247-274.
[139] Seidel, K. W. 1986 Tolerance of seedlings of ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, grand fir and Engelmann spruce for high temperature. Northwest Sci. 60:1-7.
[140] Sharpe, A.L. et al 1990 Early forest performance of roughly handled Sitka spruce and Douglas fir of different plant types. Scot. For. 44: 257-265.
[141] Sharpe,A.L. and Mason,W.L. 1992. Some methods of cold storage can seriously affect root growth potential and root moisture content and subsequent forest performance of Sitka spruce and Douglas fir transplants. Forestry 65:463-472.
[142] Simpson, D. G., Thompson, C.F. and Sutherland, C.D. 1994. Field performance potential of interior spruce seedlings: effects of stress treatments and prediction by root growth potential and needle conductance. Can. J.For.Res. 24:576-586.
[143] Simpson, D.G., and Ritchie, G.A. 1997. Does RGP predict field performance? A debate. New For. 13:253-277.
[144] Sinclair,T.R. and M.M. Ludlow. 1985. Who taught plants thermodynamics? The unfulfilled potential of plant water potential. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 12:213-217.
[145] Smit, J., and van den Driessche, R. 1992. Root growth and water use efficiency of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and lodge-pole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) seedlings. Tree physiol. 11: 401-410.
[146] Steponkus, P. L. et al 1967 Refinement of the triphenyl tetrazolium chloride method of determining cold injury, Plant physiol. 42: 1423-1426.
[147] Stone,E. C. 1955. Poor survival and the physiological condition of planting stock. For. Sci. 1:89-94.
[148] Strand, M. and Lundmark, T. 1987. Effects of low night temperature and light on chlorophyll fluorescence of field-grown seedlings of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.). Tree Physiol. 3: 211-224.
[149] Sucoff, E., Buschena, C. and Tamate, P. 1985 Desiccation and water potentials in the roots, leaves, and shoots of bare root red pine and white spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 989-992.
[150] Sutton, R. F. 1980. Planting stock quality, root growth capacity, and field performance of three boreal conifers. N.Z.J.For.Sci. 10:54-71.
[151] Sutton, R.F. 1983. Root growth capacity: relationship with field root growth and performance in out planted jack pine and blue spruce, Plant and Soil 71: 111-122.
[152] Sutton, R. F. 1990. Root growth capacity in coniferous forest trees. Hort. Sci. 25: 259-266.
[153] Tabbush, P. M., 1986. Rough handing, soil temperature, and root development in outplanted Sitka spruce and Douglas fir. Can.J.For.Res. 16:1385-1388.
[154] Tabbush, P.M. 19DougDougDougDougDougDougDougDougter status and forest performance of barerooted Sitka Spruce and Douglas fir transplants. Forestry 60(1) : 31-43.
[155] Tan, W., Blake, T.J., and Boyle, T.J.B. 1992. Drought tolerance in faster and slower growing black spruce(Picea mariana) progenies: II. Osmotic adjustment and changes of soluble carbohydrates and amino acids under osmotic stress. Physiol. Plant. 85: 645-651.
[156] Timmis, R. 1976. Methods of screening tree seedlings for frost hardiness, Pages 421-435 in Tree physiology and yield improvement (M.G.R. Cannell and F.T. Last eds), Academic press, New York.
[157] Tschaplinski, T.J. and T.J. Blake 1989 Water stress tolerance and late season organic solute accumulation in hybrid poplar. Can. J. Bot. 67: 1681-1688.
[158] Tyree, M.T., and H.T. Hammel, 1972. The measurement of the turgor pressure and the water relations of plants by the pressure-bomb technique. Journal of Experimental botany 23(74): 267-282.
[159] Tyree, M.T., M.E.MacGregor, A.Petrov, and M.I.Upenieks, 1978. A comparison of systematic errors between the Richards and Hammel methods of measuring tissue-water relations parameters. Can.J.Bot. 56:2153-2161.
[160] Van den Driessche, R. 1987. Importance of current photosynthate to new root growth in planted conifer seedlings. Can.J.For.Res. 17:776-782.
[161] Vann,D.R., Johnson,A.H., and Casper,B.B. 1994. Effects of elevated temperatures on carbon dioxide exchange in Picea rubens. Tree Physiol. 14:1339-1349.
[162] Vidaver, W.E., Lister, G.R., Brooke, R.C. and Binder, W.D. 1991. A manual for the Use of Variable Chlorophyll Fluorescence in the Assessment of the Ecophysiology of Conifer Seedlings. B.C. Minstry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. FRDA Report ISSN 0835-0752 163, 60p.
[163] Wakeley, P.C. 1949. Physiological grades of southern pine nursery stock. Proceedings of the 1948 Society of American Foresters Annual Meeting. 311-321.
[164] Wang, Z. and G.W.Stutte 1992 The role of carbohydrates in active osmotic adjustment in apple under water stress J.Am.Soc.Hortic.Sci. 117: 816-823.
[165] Wright, G.C., Nageswara Rao, R.C., and Farquhar, G.D. 1994. Water-use efficiency an carbon isotope discrimination in peanut under water deficit conditions. Crop Sci. 34: 92-97.
[166] Zhang, J.W., and Marshall, J.D. 1994. Population differences in water-use efficiency of well-watered and water-stressed western larch seedlings. Can. J.For.Res. 24:92-99.
[167] Zhang, J.W., Feng, Z., Cregg, B.M., and Schumann, C.M. 1997. Carbon isotopic composition, gas exchange, and growth of three populations of ponderosa pine differing in drought tolerance. Tree Physiol. 17: 461-466.
[168] Zwiazek, J.J., and Blake, T.J. 1989. Effects of preconditioning on subsequent water relations, stomatal sensitivity, and photosynthesis in osmotically stressed black spruce. Can.J.Bot. 67: 2240-2244.
[169] Zwiazek, J.J., and Blake, T.J. 1990 Effects of preconditioning on carbohydrate and amino acid composition of osmotically stressd black spruce (Picea mariana) cuttings. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 108-112.
[170] Zwiazek, J.J. 1991 Cell wall changes in white spruce (Picea glauca) needles subjected to repeated drought stress. Physiol. Plant. 82: 513-518.
[2] 陈立松等1999 水分胁迫对荔枝叶片糖代谢的影响及其与抗旱性的关系热带作物学报20(2):31-36
[3] 冯玉龙等1999 长白落叶松生理生态特性的CO2 响应及意义植物研究19(1):53-59
[4] 高玉葆等1999 黑麦草叶内游离脯氨酸含量对于不同类型和强度的水分胁迫的生理生态响应植物生态学报23(3):193-204
[5] 李保国等1990 果树光合作用研究进展河北林学院学报5(3):254-261
[6] 李吉跃等1999 多重复干旱循环对苗木气体交换和水分利用效率的影响北京林业大学学报21(3):1-8
[7] 李秧秧1998 不同水分利用效率的高羊茅水分和光合特性研究草业科学15(1):14-17
[8] 李银芳等1999 箭干杨农田防护林合理灌溉的林木糖代谢分析干旱区资源与环境13(2):84-89
[9] 刘勇1994 中国北方主要针叶造林树种苗木质量的研究北京林业大学博士学位论文
[10] 孟焕文等2000 黄瓜幼苗对热胁迫的生理反应及耐热鉴定指标筛选西北农业学报9(1):96-99
[11] 彭方仁等1997 板栗密植园树冠结构特征与光能分布规律研究南京林业大学学报21(2):27-31
[12] 沈惠娟等1999 渗透胁迫下多效唑对刺槐幼苗体内多胺、脯氨酸和保护酶系统的影响中国南方主要造林树种耐盐耐旱机理研究中国林业出版社
[13] 王丽华1999 不同地理种源长白落叶松生理生态特性的研究植物研究19(2):165-171
[14] 王沙生等1991 植物生理学中国林业出版社
[15] 薛惠勤等1999 干旱条件下花生水分利用效率与叶片碳同位素辨别力的相关性研究中国油料作物学报21(1):27-34
[16] 喻方圆徐锡增2000 苗木生理与质量研究进展世界林业研究13(4):17-24
[17] 张英普何武权韩健1999 水分胁迫对玉米生理生态特性的影响西北水资源与水工程10(3):18-21.
[18] 张守仁等1998 白杨派新无性系气孔生理生态特性的研究生态学报18(4):358-363
[19] 邹琦1995 植物生理生化实验指导中国农业出版社
[20] Abrams,M.D. 1988. Sources of variation in osmotic potentials with special reference to North American tree species. For. Sci. 34:1030-1046.
[21] Abrams, M.D., 1994. Genotypic and Phenotypic variation as stress adaptations in temperate tree species: a review of several case studies Tree Physiol. 14: 833-842.
[22] Acevedo, E., E. Fereres, T.C. Hsiao, and D.W. Henderson 1979 Diurnal growth trends, water potential, and osmotic adjustment of maize and sorghum leaves in the field. Plant Physiol. 64: 476-480.
[23] Aldhous, J.R. 1972. Nursery practice. For. Comm. Bull. 43. H.M.S.O. London.
[24] Alexander,J.D., Donnelly,J.R., and Shane,J.B. 1995. Photosynthetic and transpirational responses of red spruce understory trees to light and temperature. Tree Physiol. 15: 393-398.
[25] AI-Hamdani, S., Murphy, J.M., and Todd, G.W. 1991. Stomatal conductance and CO2 assimilation as screening tools for drought resistance in sorghum. Can.J.Plant Sci. 71: 689-694.
[26] Allen, J.A. 1992. Cypress-tupelo swamp restoration in southern Louisiana. Restor. Manage. Notes 10: 188-189.
[27] Allen, J.A., J.L. Chambers and M. Stine 1994. Prospects for increasing the salt tolerance of forest trees: a review Tree Physiol. 14: 843-853.
[28] Amundson, R.G., R.J.Kohut, J.A. Laurence, S.Fellows, and L.J.Colavito 1993 Moderate water stress alters carbohydrate content and cold tolerance of red spruce foliage. Environ. Exp. Bot. 33: 383-390.
[29] Auchmoody, L.R. and R.S. Walters. 1988. Revegetation of a brine-killed forest site. Soil Sci.Soc.Am.J. 52: 277-280.
[30] Balneaves, J.M. and Menzies, M. I. 1988. Lifting and handling procedures at Edendale Nursery-effects on survival and growth of 1/0 Pinus radiata seedlings. N.Z.J.For.Sci. 18:132-134.
[31] Berrang, P. C. et al 1986 Seasonal changes in the cold tolerance of Pitch pine, Can. J. For. Res. 16: 408-410.
[32] Binder, W. D. et al 1990 Temperature and time related variation of root growth in some conifer tree species, Can. J. For. Res. 20:1192-1199.
[33] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1995 Heat damage in boxed white spruce (Picea glauca[Moench.] Voss) seedlings: Its pre-planting detection and effect on field performance. New Forests 9: 237-259.
[34] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1996a. Seasonal changes in chlorophyll fluorescence of white spruce seedlings from different latitudes in relation to gas exchange and winter storability. New Forests 11: 207-232.
[35] Binder, W.D. and Fielder, P. 1996b. Chlorophyll fluorescence as an indicator of frost hardiness in white spruce seedlings from different latitudes. New Forests 11: 233-253.
[36] Bj?rkman, O. & Demming, B. 1987. Photon yield of O2 evolution and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics at 77K among vascular plants of diverse origins. Planta 170:489-504.
[37] Bongarten, B.C. and R.O. Teskey. 1987. Dry weight partitioning and its relationship to productivity in loblolly pine seedlings from seven sources. For. Sci. 33: 255-267.
[38] Brissette J.C. and T.C. Roberts 1984. Seedling size and lifting date effects on root growth potential of loblolly pine from two Arkanasas nurseries. Tree Planters’Notes 35: 34-38.
[39] Burdett, A.N. 1990. Physiological processes in plantation establishment and the development of specifications for forest planting stock. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 415-427.
[40] Burr, K. E. et al 1986 Comparison of four cold hardiness tests on three western conifers, USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-137: 87-95.
[41] Burr, K.E., et al 1993 Heat tolerance, cold tolerance, and bud dormancy relationships in seedlings of selected conifers. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 118: 840-844.
[42] Cannell M.G.R. et al 1990 Sitke spruce and Douglas fir seedlings in the nursery and in cold storage: Root Growth potential , Carbohydrate content, Dormancy , Frost hardiness and Mitotic index, Forestry 63(1) 10-27.
[43] Carlson, W.C. 1986. Root system considerations in the quality of loblolly seedlings. Southern J. Appl. For. 10: 87-92.
[44] Carlson, W.C. 1991 Lifting, storing and transporting southern pine seedlings, pp. 291-302. In: Duera, M.L. and Dougherty, P. M. (Eds) Forest Regeneration Manual. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[45] Cheung,Y.N.S., M.T.Tyree, and J. Dainty. 1975. Water relation parameters on single leaves obtained in a pressure bomb and some ecological interpretations. Canadian journal of botany 53: 1342-1346.
[46] Choi, H.S. 1992. Variation in water potential components among half-sib families of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) in response to soil drought. Can.J.For.Res. 22:111-116.
[47] Colombo, S.J. and C. Glerum 1984. Winter injury to shoots as it affects root activity in black spruce container seedlings Can. J. For. Res. 14: 31-32.
[48] Colombo, S. J. et al 1989 Winter hardening in first year black spruce (Picea mariana) seedlings, physiol. Plant 76:1-9.
[49] Colombo, S.J. and Timmer, V.R. 1992 Limits of tolerance to high temperature causing direct and indirect damage to black spruce. Tree Physiol. 11: 95-104.
[50] Colombo, S.J. 1994 Timing of cold temperature exposure affects root and shoot frost hardiness of Picea mariana container seedlings. Scan, J. for. Res. 9:52-59.
[51] Coutts, M.P. 1981 Effects of root or shoot exposure before planting on the water relations, growth, and survival of Sitka spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 11:703-709.
[52] Cregg, B.M. 1993. Seed source variation in water relations, gas exchange, and needle morphology of mature ponderosa pine trees. Can. J. For.Res. 23: 749-755.
[53] Cregg, B.M. 1994. Carbon allocation, gas exchange, and needle morphology of pinus ponderosa genotypes known to differ in growth and survival under imposed drought. Tree physiol. 14: 883-898.
[54] Deans, J.D. et al 1990a. The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold storage on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry 63: 129-141.
[55] Deans, J.D. et al 1990b. The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold stroge on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry 63: 129-141.
[56] Delucia, E.H., Schlesinger, W.H., and Billings, W.D. 1989. Edaphic limitations to growth and photosynthesis in Sierran and Great basin vegetation. Oecologia 78:184-190.
[57] Dewald, L.E. and Feret, P.A. 1987. Changes in loblolly pine root growth potential from September to April. Can. J. For. Res. 17: 635-543.
[58] Dexter, S. T. et al 1930 Preliminary results in measuring the hardiness of plants, Plant physiol. 5:315-223.
[59] Dexter, S. T. et al 1932 Investigation on the hardiness of plants by measurement of electrical conductivity, plant physiol. 7: 63-78.
[60] Dochinger, L.S. and A.M.Townsend. 1979. Effects of roadside deicer salts and ozone on red maple progenies. Environ. Poll. 29: 229-237.
[61] Eastman, P.K. and E. L. Camm. 1995. Regulation of photosynthesis in interior spruce during water stress: changes in gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence. Tree physiol. 15:229-235.
[62] Epron, D. and E. Dreyer. 1992. Effects of severe dehydration on leaf photosynthesis in Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.: photosystem II efficiency, photochemical and non photochemical fluorescence quenchings and electrolyte leakage. Tree Physiol. 10: 273-284.
[63] Epron, D. and E. Dreyer. 1993. Photosynthesis of oka leaves under water stress: maintenance of high photochemical efficiency of photosystem II and occurrence of non-uniform CO2 assimilation. Tree Physiol. 13: 107-117.
[64] Fan,S., and Grossnickle, S.C., and Sutton, B.C.S. 1997. Relationship between gas exchange adaptations of Sitka×interior spruce genotypes and ribosomal DNA markers. Tree physiol. 17:115-123.
[65] Farquhar G.D. and Richards R.A. 1984 Isotope composition of plant carbon correlates with water use efficiency of wheat genotypes. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 11: 539-552.
[66] Feret, P.P., Kreh,R.E. and Mulligan, C. 1985. Effects of air drying on survival, height and root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings. Southern J. Appl. For. 9:125-128.
[67] Flanagan, L.B., and Johnsen, K.H. 1995. Genetic variation in carbon isotope discrimination and its relationship to growth under field conditions in full-sib families of Picea mariana. Can. J. For. Res. 25: 39-47.
[68] Flint,H.L., Boyce,B.R. and Beattie, D.J. 1967. Index of injury-A useful expression of freezing injury to plant tissues as determined by the electrolytic method. Can.J. Plant Sci. 47:229-230.
[69] Geacintov, N. E. et al 1987 Energy transfer and fluorescence mechanism in photosynthetic membranes in: CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 55: 1-44. Chemical rubber company Boca Raton Florida.
[70] Genty, B., J.M. Briantais and J.B. Vieira da Silva. 1987. Effects of drought on primary photosynthetic processes of cotton leaves. Plant Physiol. 83:360-364.
[71] Gillies, S.L. 1993. A physiological study of fall dormancy and spring reactivation of photosynthesis in seedlings of white spruce [ Picea glauca (Moench ) Voss ] and Douglas fir [ Pseudotsuga menziesii ( Mirb.) ]. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. Canada.
[72] Glerum C. 1985 Frost hardiness of coniferous seedlings: principles and applications in Duryea M.L.(eds) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive abilities of major tests proceedings of the workshop held October 16-18, 1984 ,Oregon state university.
[73] Greenway, H. and R.A. Munns. 1980. Mechanisms of salt tolerance in non-halophytes. Annu.Rev.Plant Physiol. 31: 149-190.
[74] Grossnickle S.C., and Reid, C.P.P. 1985. Environment and physiological control of stomatal response of Picea engelmannii seedlings on a high elevation mine site. Ecol. Plant. 6:111-123.
[75] Grossnickle S.C., and Blake, T.J. 1987. Water relations and morphological development of bare-root jack pine and white spruce seedlings: seedlings establishment on a boreal cut over site. For. Ecol. Manage. 18:299-318.
[76] Grossnickle S.C., and Heikurinen, J. 1989. Site preparation: water relations and growth of outplanted jack pine and white spruce. New For. 3:99-123.
[77] Grossnickle, S. C., and Folk, R.S. 1993. Stock quality assessment: forecasting survival or performance on a reforestation site. Tree Planters’Notes, 44: 113-121.
[78] Grossnickle S.C., and Major, J.E. 1994. Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. II. Stock quality assessment prior to field planting. Can. J. For. Res. 24:1385-1396.
[79] Grossnickle S.C. 2000 Ecophysiology of northern spruce species, The performance of planted seedlings NRC Research Press Ottawa 2000.
[80] Guehl, J.M., A. Clement, P. Kaushal, and G. Aussenac 1993. Planting stress, water status and non-structural carbohysrate concentrations in Corsican pine seedlings. Tree Physiol. 12: 173-183.
[81] Havaux, M. 1992. Stress tolerance of photosystem II in vivo Antagonistic effects of water, heat, and photoinhibition stresses. Plant physiol. 100: 424-432.
[82] Hawkins, C.D.B. and G.R.Lister. 1985. In vitro chlorophyll fluorescence as a possible indicator of the dormancy state in Douglas-fir seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 607-612.
[83] Hawkins, C.D.B. and Binder, W.D. 1990. State of the art seedling stock quality based on seedling physiology, pp. 91-122. In: Rose, R., Campbell, S.J. and Landis, T.D. (Eds) Target Seedling Symposium: Proc. Combined Meet. Western For. Nursery Assoc., US Dep. Agric. For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200, Fort Collins, CO. Chap. 8.
[84] Hermann,R.K. 1967. Seasonal variation in the sensitivity of Douglas fir seedlings to exposure of roots. For. Sci. 13:140-149.
[85] Hipkins, M. F. et al (eds) 1986 Photosynthesis energy transduction: A practical approach, IRL press, Oxford.
[86] Insley,H. and Buckley,G.P. 1985. The influence of desiccation and root pruning on the survival and growth of broadleaved seedlings. J. Hort. Sci. 60:377-387.
[87] Johnsen, K. H., Feret, P. P. and Seiler, J. R. 1988. Root growth potential and shoot activity of northern and southern provenances of 1-0 eastern white pine seedlings grown in a virginia nursery. Can. J. For. Res. 18:610-614.
[88] Jones, M.M., C.B.Osmond, and N.C. Turner 1980 Accumulation of solutes in leaves of sorghum and sunflower in response to water deficits. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 7: 193-205.
[89] Kaiser, W.M. 1987. Effects of water deficit on photosynthetic capacity. Physiol. Plant. 71:142-149.
[90] Kaufmann,M.R. 1979. Stomatal control and the development of water deficit in Engelmann spruce seedlings during drought. Can.J.For.Res. 9:297-304.
[91] Kauppi, P. 1984. Stress, strain and injury: Scots pine transplants from lifting to acclimation on the planting site. Acta. For. Fenn. 185:1-49.
[92] Kolb, T. E. et al 1985 Seasonal and genetic variations in loblolly pine cold tolerance, For. Sci. 31: 926-932.
[93] Koppenaal, R.S., Tschaplinski, T.J., and Colombo, S.J. 1991. Carbohydrate accumulation and turgor maintenance in seedling shoots and roots of two boreal conifers subjected to water stress. Can. J. Bot. 69: 2522-2528.
[94] Kozlowski T.T., Kramer P.J. and Pallardy S.G. 1991. The physiological ecology of woody plants Academic press, inc. San Diego, California.
[95] Lamhamedi, M.S., and Bernier, P.Y. 1994. Ecophysiology and field performance of black spruce(Picea mariana): a review. Ann.For.Sci.(Paris), 51: 529-551.
[96] Lamontagne, M.; Bigras, F.J. and Margolis H.A. 2000. Chlorophyll fluorescence and co2 assimilation of black spruce seedlings following frost in different temperature and light conditions. Tree Physiol. 20: 249-255.
[97] Landis, T. D., Skakel, S.G. 1988. Root growth potential as an indicator of out planting performance: problems and perspectives. In: Proc. Combined Western Nursery Council: 106-110. Forest Nursery Assn. Meeting, 1988 August 8-11, Vernon, British Columbia.
[98] Langerud, B.R., Puttonen, P. and Troeng, E. 1991. Viability of Picea abies seedlings with damaged roots and shoots. Scand. J. For. Res. 6: 59-72.
[99] Levitt,J. 1980. Response of plants to environmental stress. Vol. I. Chilling, freezing and high temperature stress. Academic Press, New York.
[100] Lindstr?m, A. and Nystr?m, C. 1987. Seasonal variation in root hardiness of container-grown Scots pine, Norway spruce, and lodgepole pine seedlings Can. J. For. Res. 17: 789-793.
[101] Livingston,N.J., Guy, R.D., Sun, Z.J., and Ethier, G.J. 1999. The effects of nitrogen stress on the stable carbon isotope composition, productivity and water use efficiency of white spruce (Picea glauca(Moench)Voss) seedlings. Plant Cell Environ. 22: 281-289.
[102] Lopushinsky,W., and Klock, G.O. 1974. Transpiration of conifer seedlings in relation to soil water potential. For.Sci. 20: 181-186.
[103] Lopushinsky, W. 1990. Seedling moisture status, pp. 123-128. In:Rose,R.,Campbell, S.J. and Landis, T.D. (Eds) 1990 Target Seedling Symposium, Proceedings, Combined Meetings of the Western Forest Nursery Associations. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-200.
[104] Margolis, H.A. and Brand, D.G. 1990. An ecophysiological basis for understanding plantation establishment. Can.J.For.Res. 20: 375-390.
[105] Marx, D.H. and Hatchell, G.E. 1987. Root stripping of ectomycorrhizae decreases field performance of loblolly and longleaf pine seedlings. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 10: 173-179.
[106] Mathur, N.K. and A.K. Sharma. 1984. Eucalyptus in reclamation of saline and alkaline soils in India. India For. 110:9-15.
[107] McCreary, D. D. and Duryea, M.L. 1987. Predicting field performance of Douglas fir seedlings: comparison of root growth potential, vigour and plant moisture stress. New Forests 3:153-169.
[108] Mckay,H.M. and Mason,W.L. 1991. Physiological indicators of tolerance to cold storage in Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedlings. Can.J.For.Res. 21: 890-901.
[109] Mckay,H.M. 1992. Electrolyte leakage from fine roots of conifer seedlings: a rapid index of plant vitality following cold storage. Can.J.For.Res. 22:1371-1377.
[110] Mckay, H.M., Gardiner, B.A., Mason, W.L., Nelson, D.G. and Hollingsworth, M.K. 1993 The Gravitational forces generated by dropping plants and the response of Sitka spruce seedlings to dropping. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 2443-2451.
[111] Mckay, H.M. 1994. Frost hardiness and cold-storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi and pinus sylvestris bare root seedlings Scand. J. For, Res. 9: 203-213.
[112] McKay, H.M. 1997. A review of the effect of stresses between lifting and planting on nursery stock quality and performance. New Forests 13:369-399.
[113] Mckay, H.M. and White, I.M.S. 1997. Fine root electrolyte leakage and moisture content: indices of Sitka spruce and Douglas fir seedling performance after desiccation. New Forests 13:139-162.
[14]dlindlindlindlindlindlindlindlin Net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance of red spruce twigs before and after detachment. Can.J.For.Res. 32: 716-721.
[115] Mitchell, C.A. 1994 Recent advances in plant response to mechanical stress: theory and application Hort. Sciences 29:571.
[116] Mohammed, G.H., Binder, W.D. and Gillies, S. 1995. Chlorophyll fluorescence: A reviews of its practical forestry applications and instrumentation. Scan. J. For. Res. 10: 383-410.
[117] Munns, R. and A. Termaat. 1986. Whole plant responses to salinity. Aust.J.Plant Physiol. 13: 143-160.
[118] Olivas-Garcia J.M., B.M. Cregg., and Thomas C.H. 2000. Genotypic variation in carbon isotope discrimination and gas exchange of ponderosa pine seedlings under two levels of water stress. Can. J. For. Res. 30: 1581-1590.
[119] Oquist, G. & Wass, R. 1988. A portable, microprocessor operated instrument for measuring chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics in stress physiology. Physiol. Plant. 73: 211-217.
[120] Osório J. and Pereira J.S. 1994. Genotypic difference in water use efficiency and 13C discrimination in Eucalyptus globulus Tree Physiol. 14: 871-882.
[121] Parker, J. 1953 Some application and limitations of tetrazolium chloride, Science 118: 77-79.
[122] Pasternak, D. 1987. Salt tolerance and crop production-a comprehensive approach. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 25:271-291.
[123] Patterson, T.B., Guy,R.D., and Dang, Q.L. 1997. Whole-plant nitrogen and water relations traits, and their associated trade-off, in adjacent muskeg and upland boreal spruce species. Oecologia, 110:160-168.
[124] Puttonen, P., and Arnott, J.T. 1994. Influence of photoperiod and temperature on growth, gas exchange and cold hardiness of yellow cypress stecklings. Can.J.For.Res. 24: 1608-1616.
[125] Raymond, C. A. et al 1986 A conductivity method for screening populations of Eucalyptus for frost damage and frost tolerance, Aust. J. Bot. 34: 377-393.
[126] Ritchie, G. A., and Dunlap, J.R. 1980. Root growth potential: its development and expression in forest tree seedlings. N. Z. J. For. Sci. 10:218-248.
[127] Ritchie, G.A., 1985 Root growth potential: principles, procedures and predictive ability, pp. 93-105. In: Duryea, M.L.(Ed) proc. of workshop evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive abilities of major tests. Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA.
[128] Ritchie, G. A. 1986 Relationship among bud dormancy status, cold hardiness, and stress resistance in 290 Douglas fir, New For. 1: 29-42.
[129] Ritchie, G.A., and Tanaka, Y. 1990. Root growth potential and the target seedling. In: R. Rose, S.J. Campbell, and T.D. Landis (Edited). 1990 Target seedling Symposium: Proceedings of the Western Forest Nursery Associations. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200. Pp. 37-51.
[130] Roberts, L. W. 1951 Survey of factors responsible in reduction of 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride in plant tissues, Science 113: 692-693.
[131] Roberts, L. W. 1957 Eliminating technically induced variations in the tetrazolium reaction in plant material, Stain Technol. 32:98-99.
[132] Sakai, A. 1978, Low temperature exotherms of Winter buds of hardy confiers, plant and cell physiology 19: 1439-1446.
[133] Scholander, P.F., H.T.Hammel, E.A. Hemmingsen, and E.D. Bradstreet. 1964. Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic potentials in leaves of mangroves and some other plants. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci. USA 51: 119-125.
[134] Scholander,P.F., H.T.Hammel, E.D. Bradstreet and E.A. Seiler, J.R. and B.H.Cazell, 1990. Influence of water stress on the physiology and growth of red spruce seedlings. Tree physiology 6:69-77.
[135] Schreiber, U. and J. A. Berry. 1977. Heat-induced changes of chlorophyll fluorescence in intact leaves correlated with damage of the photosynthetic apparatus. Planta 136:233-238.
[136] Schreiber, U. and Bilger, W. 1993. 3: Progress in chlorophyll fluorescence research: major developments during the past years in retrospect. Prog. Bot. 54: 151-173.
[137] Schreiber, U., Bilger, W. and Neubauer, C. 1994. Chlorophyll fluorescence as a non-destructive indicator for rapid assessment of in vivo photosynthesis. Ecol. Stud. 100: 49-70.
[138] Schulze, E.D. 1986. Carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange in response to drought in the atmosphere and in the soil. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 37: 247-274.
[139] Seidel, K. W. 1986 Tolerance of seedlings of ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, grand fir and Engelmann spruce for high temperature. Northwest Sci. 60:1-7.
[140] Sharpe, A.L. et al 1990 Early forest performance of roughly handled Sitka spruce and Douglas fir of different plant types. Scot. For. 44: 257-265.
[141] Sharpe,A.L. and Mason,W.L. 1992. Some methods of cold storage can seriously affect root growth potential and root moisture content and subsequent forest performance of Sitka spruce and Douglas fir transplants. Forestry 65:463-472.
[142] Simpson, D. G., Thompson, C.F. and Sutherland, C.D. 1994. Field performance potential of interior spruce seedlings: effects of stress treatments and prediction by root growth potential and needle conductance. Can. J.For.Res. 24:576-586.
[143] Simpson, D.G., and Ritchie, G.A. 1997. Does RGP predict field performance? A debate. New For. 13:253-277.
[144] Sinclair,T.R. and M.M. Ludlow. 1985. Who taught plants thermodynamics? The unfulfilled potential of plant water potential. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 12:213-217.
[145] Smit, J., and van den Driessche, R. 1992. Root growth and water use efficiency of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and lodge-pole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) seedlings. Tree physiol. 11: 401-410.
[146] Steponkus, P. L. et al 1967 Refinement of the triphenyl tetrazolium chloride method of determining cold injury, Plant physiol. 42: 1423-1426.
[147] Stone,E. C. 1955. Poor survival and the physiological condition of planting stock. For. Sci. 1:89-94.
[148] Strand, M. and Lundmark, T. 1987. Effects of low night temperature and light on chlorophyll fluorescence of field-grown seedlings of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.). Tree Physiol. 3: 211-224.
[149] Sucoff, E., Buschena, C. and Tamate, P. 1985 Desiccation and water potentials in the roots, leaves, and shoots of bare root red pine and white spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 989-992.
[150] Sutton, R. F. 1980. Planting stock quality, root growth capacity, and field performance of three boreal conifers. N.Z.J.For.Sci. 10:54-71.
[151] Sutton, R.F. 1983. Root growth capacity: relationship with field root growth and performance in out planted jack pine and blue spruce, Plant and Soil 71: 111-122.
[152] Sutton, R. F. 1990. Root growth capacity in coniferous forest trees. Hort. Sci. 25: 259-266.
[153] Tabbush, P. M., 1986. Rough handing, soil temperature, and root development in outplanted Sitka spruce and Douglas fir. Can.J.For.Res. 16:1385-1388.
[154] Tabbush, P.M. 19DougDougDougDougDougDougDougDougter status and forest performance of barerooted Sitka Spruce and Douglas fir transplants. Forestry 60(1) : 31-43.
[155] Tan, W., Blake, T.J., and Boyle, T.J.B. 1992. Drought tolerance in faster and slower growing black spruce(Picea mariana) progenies: II. Osmotic adjustment and changes of soluble carbohydrates and amino acids under osmotic stress. Physiol. Plant. 85: 645-651.
[156] Timmis, R. 1976. Methods of screening tree seedlings for frost hardiness, Pages 421-435 in Tree physiology and yield improvement (M.G.R. Cannell and F.T. Last eds), Academic press, New York.
[157] Tschaplinski, T.J. and T.J. Blake 1989 Water stress tolerance and late season organic solute accumulation in hybrid poplar. Can. J. Bot. 67: 1681-1688.
[158] Tyree, M.T., and H.T. Hammel, 1972. The measurement of the turgor pressure and the water relations of plants by the pressure-bomb technique. Journal of Experimental botany 23(74): 267-282.
[159] Tyree, M.T., M.E.MacGregor, A.Petrov, and M.I.Upenieks, 1978. A comparison of systematic errors between the Richards and Hammel methods of measuring tissue-water relations parameters. Can.J.Bot. 56:2153-2161.
[160] Van den Driessche, R. 1987. Importance of current photosynthate to new root growth in planted conifer seedlings. Can.J.For.Res. 17:776-782.
[161] Vann,D.R., Johnson,A.H., and Casper,B.B. 1994. Effects of elevated temperatures on carbon dioxide exchange in Picea rubens. Tree Physiol. 14:1339-1349.
[162] Vidaver, W.E., Lister, G.R., Brooke, R.C. and Binder, W.D. 1991. A manual for the Use of Variable Chlorophyll Fluorescence in the Assessment of the Ecophysiology of Conifer Seedlings. B.C. Minstry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. FRDA Report ISSN 0835-0752 163, 60p.
[163] Wakeley, P.C. 1949. Physiological grades of southern pine nursery stock. Proceedings of the 1948 Society of American Foresters Annual Meeting. 311-321.
[164] Wang, Z. and G.W.Stutte 1992 The role of carbohydrates in active osmotic adjustment in apple under water stress J.Am.Soc.Hortic.Sci. 117: 816-823.
[165] Wright, G.C., Nageswara Rao, R.C., and Farquhar, G.D. 1994. Water-use efficiency an carbon isotope discrimination in peanut under water deficit conditions. Crop Sci. 34: 92-97.
[166] Zhang, J.W., and Marshall, J.D. 1994. Population differences in water-use efficiency of well-watered and water-stressed western larch seedlings. Can. J.For.Res. 24:92-99.
[167] Zhang, J.W., Feng, Z., Cregg, B.M., and Schumann, C.M. 1997. Carbon isotopic composition, gas exchange, and growth of three populations of ponderosa pine differing in drought tolerance. Tree Physiol. 17: 461-466.
[168] Zwiazek, J.J., and Blake, T.J. 1989. Effects of preconditioning on subsequent water relations, stomatal sensitivity, and photosynthesis in osmotically stressed black spruce. Can.J.Bot. 67: 2240-2244.
[169] Zwiazek, J.J., and Blake, T.J. 1990 Effects of preconditioning on carbohydrate and amino acid composition of osmotically stressd black spruce (Picea mariana) cuttings. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 108-112.
[170] Zwiazek, J.J. 1991 Cell wall changes in white spruce (Picea glauca) needles subjected to repeated drought stress. Physiol. Plant. 82: 513-518.