高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金及其性能研究
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摘要
在航天飞行器中,有些部件必须采用具有高导热性能的材料,导热率越大,越有利于将自身产生的热量迅速导出同时减小构件在热载荷作用下的变形,使其工作稳定,提高寿命。通过增加结构件的传热而积可提高散热能力但会显著增加结构件的重量和空间,而使用导热性能与现用材料相近的镁合金,可以减轻重量,增加可携带的有效载荷,提高相应部件的性能和寿命。目前关于合金导热性能的研究较少。
本文成功设计和制备了一种高导热高强Mg-Zn-Mn合金。以Mg-χwt.%Zn-1wt.%Mn (x=3,5,8)合金为研究对象,通过金相显微镜(OM)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、透射电子显微镜(TEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)等分析手段和力学性能、热学性能、蠕变性能等测试手段,系统的研究了不同Zn含量Mg-Zn-Mn合金的显微组织、热学性能、力学性能、蠕变性能,并从显微组织和溶质原子半径出发,深入分析合金导热机理；还研究了工业化挤压生产Mg-Zn-Mn合金矩形棒材的力学性能、热学性能和蠕变性能各向异性行为与织构的关系。本研究取得一些具有理论价值和工程价值的创新性研究成果,为高导热镁合金的设计提供理论指导和为该合金的实际应用提供理论和实践依据。
研究发现合金的导热性能受溶质原子与基体原子半径差的大小决定。测量三种原子百分比均为2at.%的Mg-Zn, Mg-Al和Mg-Gd二元合金的导热性能和晶格常数,发现主合金元素对固溶体晶格常数影响从大到小的顺序为Gd、Al、Zn,固溶态Mg-Zn、 Mg-Al和Mg-Gd合金的导热率分别为129.1W/m·K,89.4W/m·K和38.46W/m·K。溶质原子半径与基体原子半径相差越大,引起的晶格畸变越大,合金的导热性能越差。
Mg-Zn-Mn合金铸造组织主要由初生α-Mg、Mg7Zn3和MgZn2第二相组成,经过均匀化处理,Mg-Zn相基本完全回溶至Mg基体,同时从Mg基体析出了a-Mn相。时效热处理Zn原子从过饱和固溶体中析出形成β'1杆状相和β'2盘状相。
系统研究了成分、温度以及变形和热处理等诸多因素对Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能的影响,发现合金的导热性能与合金的显微组织密切相关。Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能随着Zn含量的增加迅速下降,而在20～300℃范围内随着温度的升高呈指数上升。Mg-Zn-Mn合金经均匀化处理后导热性能上升,是因为虽然与镁原子半径差较小的Zn原子回溶会造成导热性能下降,但是与镁原子半径差较大的Mn原子从固溶体中的析出明显提高合金的导热性能,抵消了Zn原子回溶对导热性能的减弱,使合金经均匀化处理后导热性能整体上升；合金经时效处理,Zn原子以Mg-Zn相形式从基体中析出,致使Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能进一步提高。挤压态Mg-Zn-Mn合金时效后的导热性能达到了錩铝合金的水平,满足了航天飞行器对材料导热性能的要求。
研究了高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金的固溶工艺及T5和T6时效工艺和析出行为。挤压态Mg-Zn-Mn合金理想的因溶工艺为400℃×90min。Mg-Zn-Mn合金T5和T6峰时效析岀相均为β'1杆状相和β'2盘状相,对比相同晶带轴的组织发现,经T6处理后的第二相分布比T5处理更密集。Mg-Zn-Mn合金具有时效强化效果,ZM31、ZM51、 ZM81合金的T5和T6峰时效的室温极限抗拉强度分别为283MPa、311MPa、323MPa和275MPa、347MPa、383MPa。ZM51和ZM81合金经过T5和T6处理后合金的导热性能和强度均满足航天材料的要求。
研究了高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金的蠕变性能。不同状态的Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金抗蠕变性能从小到大的排列顺序为：挤压态<挤压T5态<挤压T6态<均匀化<铸态,大晶粒尺寸和时效析岀相对提高合金的抗蠕变性能有利。在100-150℃/50-90MPa的蠕变条件下研究挤压T6态Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金的蠕变行为表明,合金的蠕变速率随着温度和应力的上升而增加,其表观应力指数n=4.46和表观激活能Q=64.16KJ/mol,分别对应位错攀移机制和晶界滑移机制。
研究了工业化挤压生产的高导热Mg-5Zn-1Mn矩形棒材的织构及各向异性。高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金中存在较强的基面纤维织构,大部分晶粒的(0001)面平行于挤压方向。织构导致合金的力学性能存在各向异性,挤压方向(ED)的强度最高,在屈服之后加工硬化率较低：而横向(TD)和法向(ND)试样强度很低,在屈服之后加工硬化率较高。
发现了工业化挤压生产的Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金导热性能各向异性。合金ED、TD和ND方向试样的导热率值分别为110.7W/m·K、117.9W/m·K和117.4W/m·K, ED取向试样的导热性能低于ND和TD取向的导热性能,引起合金导热性能各向异性的机理为织构。纤维织构导致沿着ED试样的晶格排列比TD和ND取向更致密,传热电子在沿ED取向运动时受到散射和阻碍更多,相当于减少了电子传递的平均自由程。
发现了镁合金中蠕变性能各向异性。在100～150℃/50～90MPa条件下,工业化挤压生产Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金ED方向的抗蠕变强度是ND方向的2-3倍。织构是引起镁合金蠕变性能各向异性的主要因素,纤维织构导致ED取向为晶粒内部基面滑移的不利取向,在蠕变过程中基面滑移被抑制,而ND试样中存在有利于基面滑移的取向,在蠕变过程中可以通过基面滑移变形。
The selection alloys for certain applications in aerospace craft, which require alloys with low density, high specific strength and high thermal conductivity. The higher the thermal conductivity the more efficient is cooling. High thermal conductivity also assures a uniform temperature distribution which reduces thermally-induced stresses and thus prolongs service life. Increasing the area for heat transfer can improve the capacity of radiating but increase the weight and space. If apply the thermal conductivity of magnesium alloy with corresponds excellent to that of current operation materials in the aviation equipment, can achieve weight loss and increase service load, and accordingly improve the performance and life length for the equipment. To date, however, studies on the thermal properties of alloys are lacking.
A series of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys with high specific strength and high thermal conductivity were designed successfully and prepared in this study. The microstructure, mechanical properties, thermal conductivity and creep resistance of Mg-x wt.%Zn-1wt.%Mn (x=3.5.8) alloys were mainly investigated, by analytic methods, such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDAX) and microdiffraction, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) etc. and by physical property measurements of materials, such as tensile tests, thermal properties measurements etc.. The mechanism of effect of alloying elements on the thermal conductivity was revealed based on microstructures and the solution atoms radius. Furthermore, the texture evolution during the industrial extruded processing of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys has been investigated aiming at understanding their effects on the anisotropy of mechanical properties, thermal properties and creep resistance. The valuable conclusion of the present work can provide theoretical and practical for the alloy design and the application for Mg-Zn-Mn alloys with high specific strength and high thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity of magnesium alloy was depended on atomic radius difference between solute atom and matrix atom. The thermal conductivity and crystallographic lattice parameter of Mg-Zn. Mg-Al and Mg-Gd alloys which contain the same atomic percent were investigated. The effect of solute atoms on the lattice distortion size down were Gd, Al. Zn. and the thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn. Mg-Al. Mg-Gd solid solution successively decreased, is129.1VV/m·K,89.4W/nvK.38.46W/m·K, respectively. In Mg alloys, when foreign atoms are added, they cause disturbance in the periodicity of the lattice, and electrons are deflected in the absence of thermal agitation. Addition of materials of the same atomic size leads to small differences, whereas addition of materials with different atomic sizes leads to large variations.
The microstructure of as-cast Mg-Zn-Mn alloy consists of a-Mg solid solution, Mg7Zn3phases, and MgZn2phases. With increasing Zn content, the grain size of the alloys decreased and gradually formed a network structure. No new phase emerged as the Zn content increased. During solution treatment, almost all of the Mg-Zn phases dissolved and a-Mn phases precipitated from the supersaturated a-Mg solid solution. After T6treatment, the Mg grains contained rod precipitate phases and coarse particles considered to be the transition phases β1' and a-Mn particles, respectively.
The dependence of the thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys on temperature and Zn content, and the effect of heat treatment on their thermal properties were investigated. The results revealed that the thermal conductivity of alloys was depended on the microstructure. The thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys decreased remarkably with increasing composition of Zn but exponentially increased with increasing temperatures ranging from20℃to300℃. Thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of T4Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were higher than those of the as-cast alloys, which could be attributed to the dissolution of Mg-Zn phases and a-Mn precipitation from the Mg matrix. In Mg-Zn-Mn alloys, the addition of Zn atoms to the Mg matrix had minor effects on thermal conductivity, while the addition of Mn atoms caused considerable lattice distortions and thus significantly affected thermal conductivity. T6heat treatment caused a significant improvement in thermal heat transfer characteristics due to the decrease in amount of dissolved Zn and Mn by precipitation. The thermal conductivity of extruded Mg-Zn-Mn alloys after T5and T6aging treatments reached that of aluminium levels.
The homogenization parameters of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were determined. On the basis of the experiment results and diffusion kinetics calculation, the proper parameters of the Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloy for homogenizing heat treatment is heating at370℃for12h. An optimized two-step homogenization treatment as340℃×24h+370℃×4h for ZM51alloy was investigated to avoid over burning.
The solution treatment and aging temper of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were investigated. The optimized solution treatment of hot extruded Mg-Zn-Mn alloys is400℃for90min. In this study, T5and T6heat treatments were applied to the Mg-Zn-Mn alloys to reveal their effect on the Mg-Zn-Mn alloys'microstructures and strengths. The T6-tempered alloys are observed to attain peak-strength faster than the T5-tempered ones in ZM51and ZM81alloys. TEM observed showed that T5and T6have same preciatiates:rod-shaped and plate-like. The microstructures observed by same zone axis of the aged ZM51reveal that precipitation occurred much denser in T6condition than in T5condition. In Mg-Zn-Mn alloys, aging treatment can improve the mechanical properties. The UTS of ZM31, ZM51, ZM81alloys under T5and T6conditions were283MPa,311MPa,323MPa and275MPa,347MPa,383MPa, respectively. The results showed the thermal conductivity and strength of ZM51and ZM81alloys meet the requirements of aerial material.
The creep behaviors of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were studied. In100-150℃/50MPa test condition within100h, the creep resistance of different states Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloys increased in the following order:as-extruded The industrial production Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloy exhibited a strong basal fiber texture in which the majority of grains are oriented to their (0001) basal planes are nearly parallel to the extrusion direction. It shows that ZM51alloy exhibits mechanical anisotropy. The highest UTS value is measured along the ED and the lowest along the TD. Additionally, the yield point is much more pronounced in the ED than in any other orientations. The elongation-to-failure is higher in ED than in other orientations.
We found the thermal conductivity of industrial production ZM51alloy exhibited distinct anisotropy. The thermal conductivity of ED specimen was higher than that of TD and ND specimen. The value of thermal conductivity is estimated to be110.7,117.9,117.4W/(m·K) for IT). TD and ND specimens, respectively, the strong IT)‖<1()1()> fiber texture resulted in the coMPactness of the crystal lattice along FT) is very dense that reduce the mean free path of electrons and phonons of crystals along ED.
Creep experiments performed in100～150C750～90MPa conditions in the longitudinal and transverse orientations of industrial production Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloy revealed that ZM51alloy exhibit significant creep anisotropy. The creep resistance in the longitudinal orientation (IT)) is2～3times greater than that in the transverse orientation (ND). The creep anisotropy for Mg-5Zn-l Mn alloy was related to crystallographic texture. In the longitudinal orientation, the preferred basal slip systems within the grain interior are unfavorably oriented with respect to the applied stress because of a strong texture. In the transverse orientation, the basal slip systems are favorably oriented and the critical resolved shear stresses under the macroscopic applied stress levels are high resulting in dislocation activity.
本文成功设计和制备了一种高导热高强Mg-Zn-Mn合金。以Mg-χwt.%Zn-1wt.%Mn (x=3,5,8)合金为研究对象,通过金相显微镜(OM)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、透射电子显微镜(TEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)等分析手段和力学性能、热学性能、蠕变性能等测试手段,系统的研究了不同Zn含量Mg-Zn-Mn合金的显微组织、热学性能、力学性能、蠕变性能,并从显微组织和溶质原子半径出发,深入分析合金导热机理；还研究了工业化挤压生产Mg-Zn-Mn合金矩形棒材的力学性能、热学性能和蠕变性能各向异性行为与织构的关系。本研究取得一些具有理论价值和工程价值的创新性研究成果,为高导热镁合金的设计提供理论指导和为该合金的实际应用提供理论和实践依据。
研究发现合金的导热性能受溶质原子与基体原子半径差的大小决定。测量三种原子百分比均为2at.%的Mg-Zn, Mg-Al和Mg-Gd二元合金的导热性能和晶格常数,发现主合金元素对固溶体晶格常数影响从大到小的顺序为Gd、Al、Zn,固溶态Mg-Zn、 Mg-Al和Mg-Gd合金的导热率分别为129.1W/m·K,89.4W/m·K和38.46W/m·K。溶质原子半径与基体原子半径相差越大,引起的晶格畸变越大,合金的导热性能越差。
Mg-Zn-Mn合金铸造组织主要由初生α-Mg、Mg7Zn3和MgZn2第二相组成,经过均匀化处理,Mg-Zn相基本完全回溶至Mg基体,同时从Mg基体析出了a-Mn相。时效热处理Zn原子从过饱和固溶体中析出形成β'1杆状相和β'2盘状相。
系统研究了成分、温度以及变形和热处理等诸多因素对Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能的影响,发现合金的导热性能与合金的显微组织密切相关。Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能随着Zn含量的增加迅速下降,而在20～300℃范围内随着温度的升高呈指数上升。Mg-Zn-Mn合金经均匀化处理后导热性能上升,是因为虽然与镁原子半径差较小的Zn原子回溶会造成导热性能下降,但是与镁原子半径差较大的Mn原子从固溶体中的析出明显提高合金的导热性能,抵消了Zn原子回溶对导热性能的减弱,使合金经均匀化处理后导热性能整体上升；合金经时效处理,Zn原子以Mg-Zn相形式从基体中析出,致使Mg-Zn-Mn合金的导热性能进一步提高。挤压态Mg-Zn-Mn合金时效后的导热性能达到了錩铝合金的水平,满足了航天飞行器对材料导热性能的要求。
研究了高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金的固溶工艺及T5和T6时效工艺和析出行为。挤压态Mg-Zn-Mn合金理想的因溶工艺为400℃×90min。Mg-Zn-Mn合金T5和T6峰时效析岀相均为β'1杆状相和β'2盘状相,对比相同晶带轴的组织发现,经T6处理后的第二相分布比T5处理更密集。Mg-Zn-Mn合金具有时效强化效果,ZM31、ZM51、 ZM81合金的T5和T6峰时效的室温极限抗拉强度分别为283MPa、311MPa、323MPa和275MPa、347MPa、383MPa。ZM51和ZM81合金经过T5和T6处理后合金的导热性能和强度均满足航天材料的要求。
研究了高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金的蠕变性能。不同状态的Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金抗蠕变性能从小到大的排列顺序为：挤压态<挤压T5态<挤压T6态<均匀化<铸态,大晶粒尺寸和时效析岀相对提高合金的抗蠕变性能有利。在100-150℃/50-90MPa的蠕变条件下研究挤压T6态Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金的蠕变行为表明,合金的蠕变速率随着温度和应力的上升而增加,其表观应力指数n=4.46和表观激活能Q=64.16KJ/mol,分别对应位错攀移机制和晶界滑移机制。
研究了工业化挤压生产的高导热Mg-5Zn-1Mn矩形棒材的织构及各向异性。高导热Mg-Zn-Mn合金中存在较强的基面纤维织构,大部分晶粒的(0001)面平行于挤压方向。织构导致合金的力学性能存在各向异性,挤压方向(ED)的强度最高,在屈服之后加工硬化率较低：而横向(TD)和法向(ND)试样强度很低,在屈服之后加工硬化率较高。
发现了工业化挤压生产的Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金导热性能各向异性。合金ED、TD和ND方向试样的导热率值分别为110.7W/m·K、117.9W/m·K和117.4W/m·K, ED取向试样的导热性能低于ND和TD取向的导热性能,引起合金导热性能各向异性的机理为织构。纤维织构导致沿着ED试样的晶格排列比TD和ND取向更致密,传热电子在沿ED取向运动时受到散射和阻碍更多,相当于减少了电子传递的平均自由程。
发现了镁合金中蠕变性能各向异性。在100～150℃/50～90MPa条件下,工业化挤压生产Mg-5Zn-1Mn合金ED方向的抗蠕变强度是ND方向的2-3倍。织构是引起镁合金蠕变性能各向异性的主要因素,纤维织构导致ED取向为晶粒内部基面滑移的不利取向,在蠕变过程中基面滑移被抑制,而ND试样中存在有利于基面滑移的取向,在蠕变过程中可以通过基面滑移变形。
The selection alloys for certain applications in aerospace craft, which require alloys with low density, high specific strength and high thermal conductivity. The higher the thermal conductivity the more efficient is cooling. High thermal conductivity also assures a uniform temperature distribution which reduces thermally-induced stresses and thus prolongs service life. Increasing the area for heat transfer can improve the capacity of radiating but increase the weight and space. If apply the thermal conductivity of magnesium alloy with corresponds excellent to that of current operation materials in the aviation equipment, can achieve weight loss and increase service load, and accordingly improve the performance and life length for the equipment. To date, however, studies on the thermal properties of alloys are lacking.
A series of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys with high specific strength and high thermal conductivity were designed successfully and prepared in this study. The microstructure, mechanical properties, thermal conductivity and creep resistance of Mg-x wt.%Zn-1wt.%Mn (x=3.5.8) alloys were mainly investigated, by analytic methods, such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDAX) and microdiffraction, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) etc. and by physical property measurements of materials, such as tensile tests, thermal properties measurements etc.. The mechanism of effect of alloying elements on the thermal conductivity was revealed based on microstructures and the solution atoms radius. Furthermore, the texture evolution during the industrial extruded processing of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys has been investigated aiming at understanding their effects on the anisotropy of mechanical properties, thermal properties and creep resistance. The valuable conclusion of the present work can provide theoretical and practical for the alloy design and the application for Mg-Zn-Mn alloys with high specific strength and high thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity of magnesium alloy was depended on atomic radius difference between solute atom and matrix atom. The thermal conductivity and crystallographic lattice parameter of Mg-Zn. Mg-Al and Mg-Gd alloys which contain the same atomic percent were investigated. The effect of solute atoms on the lattice distortion size down were Gd, Al. Zn. and the thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn. Mg-Al. Mg-Gd solid solution successively decreased, is129.1VV/m·K,89.4W/nvK.38.46W/m·K, respectively. In Mg alloys, when foreign atoms are added, they cause disturbance in the periodicity of the lattice, and electrons are deflected in the absence of thermal agitation. Addition of materials of the same atomic size leads to small differences, whereas addition of materials with different atomic sizes leads to large variations.
The microstructure of as-cast Mg-Zn-Mn alloy consists of a-Mg solid solution, Mg7Zn3phases, and MgZn2phases. With increasing Zn content, the grain size of the alloys decreased and gradually formed a network structure. No new phase emerged as the Zn content increased. During solution treatment, almost all of the Mg-Zn phases dissolved and a-Mn phases precipitated from the supersaturated a-Mg solid solution. After T6treatment, the Mg grains contained rod precipitate phases and coarse particles considered to be the transition phases β1' and a-Mn particles, respectively.
The dependence of the thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys on temperature and Zn content, and the effect of heat treatment on their thermal properties were investigated. The results revealed that the thermal conductivity of alloys was depended on the microstructure. The thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys decreased remarkably with increasing composition of Zn but exponentially increased with increasing temperatures ranging from20℃to300℃. Thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of T4Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were higher than those of the as-cast alloys, which could be attributed to the dissolution of Mg-Zn phases and a-Mn precipitation from the Mg matrix. In Mg-Zn-Mn alloys, the addition of Zn atoms to the Mg matrix had minor effects on thermal conductivity, while the addition of Mn atoms caused considerable lattice distortions and thus significantly affected thermal conductivity. T6heat treatment caused a significant improvement in thermal heat transfer characteristics due to the decrease in amount of dissolved Zn and Mn by precipitation. The thermal conductivity of extruded Mg-Zn-Mn alloys after T5and T6aging treatments reached that of aluminium levels.
The homogenization parameters of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were determined. On the basis of the experiment results and diffusion kinetics calculation, the proper parameters of the Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloy for homogenizing heat treatment is heating at370℃for12h. An optimized two-step homogenization treatment as340℃×24h+370℃×4h for ZM51alloy was investigated to avoid over burning.
The solution treatment and aging temper of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were investigated. The optimized solution treatment of hot extruded Mg-Zn-Mn alloys is400℃for90min. In this study, T5and T6heat treatments were applied to the Mg-Zn-Mn alloys to reveal their effect on the Mg-Zn-Mn alloys'microstructures and strengths. The T6-tempered alloys are observed to attain peak-strength faster than the T5-tempered ones in ZM51and ZM81alloys. TEM observed showed that T5and T6have same preciatiates:rod-shaped and plate-like. The microstructures observed by same zone axis of the aged ZM51reveal that precipitation occurred much denser in T6condition than in T5condition. In Mg-Zn-Mn alloys, aging treatment can improve the mechanical properties. The UTS of ZM31, ZM51, ZM81alloys under T5and T6conditions were283MPa,311MPa,323MPa and275MPa,347MPa,383MPa, respectively. The results showed the thermal conductivity and strength of ZM51and ZM81alloys meet the requirements of aerial material.
The creep behaviors of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys were studied. In100-150℃/50MPa test condition within100h, the creep resistance of different states Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloys increased in the following order:as-extruded
We found the thermal conductivity of industrial production ZM51alloy exhibited distinct anisotropy. The thermal conductivity of ED specimen was higher than that of TD and ND specimen. The value of thermal conductivity is estimated to be110.7,117.9,117.4W/(m·K) for IT). TD and ND specimens, respectively, the strong IT)‖<1()1()> fiber texture resulted in the coMPactness of the crystal lattice along FT) is very dense that reduce the mean free path of electrons and phonons of crystals along ED.
Creep experiments performed in100～150C750～90MPa conditions in the longitudinal and transverse orientations of industrial production Mg-5Zn-1Mn alloy revealed that ZM51alloy exhibit significant creep anisotropy. The creep resistance in the longitudinal orientation (IT)) is2～3times greater than that in the transverse orientation (ND). The creep anisotropy for Mg-5Zn-l Mn alloy was related to crystallographic texture. In the longitudinal orientation, the preferred basal slip systems within the grain interior are unfavorably oriented with respect to the applied stress because of a strong texture. In the transverse orientation, the basal slip systems are favorably oriented and the critical resolved shear stresses under the macroscopic applied stress levels are high resulting in dislocation activity.
引文
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