全球变暖与国际贸易体系
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摘要
据国际机构IPCC的一份报告显示,在当今社会对国际事件的关注中,朝核危机、美伊战争等热点焦点都不及对全球变暖问题的关注。没有哪个国际事件能像全球变暖一样如此深刻地影响人类健康和人类社会的经济发展。然而关注国际上的多边环境协议时我们发现,全球变暖问题与国际贸易体系有着密不可分的关系,旨在抑制全球变暖的京都议定书看起来却更像是部国际贸易法。通过国际贸易体系来应对全球变暖变得十分重要,两者的双向互动关系也为这一思路提供了可行性。
本文力图在公平合理的原则下,提出通过国际贸易体系应对全球变暖,同时促进国际贸易发展的可行性建议,对后京都时代的气候制度安排提出参考建议和改进措施,旨在将全球变暖问题更好的融入国际贸易体系中,实现气候与贸易的共同发展。
本文分为导论、正文和结束语三个部分。
导论部分简要介绍了全球变暖问题以及人们为应对这一问题所做的努力和达成的一系列协议,也介绍了国内外学者对该问题的一些研究成果。
正文部分基于大量研究成果对全球变暖与国际贸易的关系进行了论证和细化分析,为通过国际贸易体系应对全球变暖的可行性打下基础。对国际上与贸易有关的三大减排措施进行了详细介绍及评析,探讨了各自的适用条件以及操作中需要注意的事项。通过对各国实际排放情况及国情的分析确定了历史累计标准为划分各国减排责任的唯一合理标准,并在此标准下讨论了各减排措施的应用。论述了通过加大部分部门的贸易开放减缓并适应全球变暖的重要性及可行性。分析了实现国际贸易与气候协调发展的体制保障并提出了相关建议。
结束语部分主要陈述了本文通过分析讨论得出的结论及有待解决的问题,并对未来发展进行了展望。在全球变暖趋势不可逆转或短时期内无法逆转的情况下,通过国际贸易体系积极主动的适应全球变暖十分重要,也是可行的,新贸易模式就是对全球变暖的经济适应。历史累计标准应该作为划分各国减排义务的唯一合理选择,发达国家应当承担更多的减排义务,在此标准下应该允许烟尘排放税系统中各国的差别税率,烟尘排放税可由各国率先在国家层面上积极实施。排放权交易体系是明确各国减排水平并在区域甚至全球范围内实现联合减排的有力工具,但实现该体系世界范围内的衔接十分困难,且在操作上有很多需要注意的地方。应给予发展中国家更多的排放权,保障发展中国家的经济安全。发达国家可利用自身经济及技术优势,通过清洁发展机制和“抵消”项目等帮助发展中国家减排,同时扩大自身排放权。在目前甚至一定时期内没有“碳泄漏”发生的情况下,边界调整措施只是贸易保护主义的一个借口,且操作上可行性低,成本高,执行过程复杂,短时期内不应该予以实行。即使以后需要其作为前两种措施的补充而实施时,也要经过WTO及UNFCCC联合成立的专家团认定。欧盟及北美应该降低其陆地运输的比例以降低贸易运输的温室气体排放。
According to the report of IPCC, the modern society pays far more attention on global warming than any other international business. Global warming deeply influenced the human life to such a degree that no other international business could bear comparison with. However, when we focus on the multilateral environmental agreements, we find consanguineous relationship between global warming and the world trade system. The Kyoto Protocol which aimed at restraining global warming seems to be a law of world trade. World trade system becomes very important in controlling the emission of greenhouse gas.
The purpose of this article is to propose several practical suggestions to mitigate and adapt to the global warming under the principle of justice, meanwhile promote the development of international trade. By combining the anti-global warming measures into the world trade system, realize the harmonious development between climate and trade.
This article is divided into three parts. Part one is foreword, briefly introduced the global warming problem and the efforts people have made to deal with this problem. Main relevant studies about this subject both domestic and abroad are also introduces in part one.
On the base of amount of studies relevant to this subject, part two analyzed the relationship between global warming and international trade. This part detailedly introduced and analyzed the three main trade related measures that are designed to reduce greenhouse emission, then respectively discussed their applicability and what need to be noticed in the practical operation. Part two also discussed the“historic emission principle”as the only reasonable standard to assign obligations among countries to reduce greenhouse emission, then discussed application of the three main measures under the“historic emission principle”. At last, this part emphasized the importance of trade and trade opening in responding to global warming, proposed several suggestions in cooperation between WTO and UNFCCC.
Part three is the conclusion. Based on the analyse above, the effect of trade and trade opening in adapting to global warming should be emphasized. New trade pattern should be taken as a means of economic adaptation to climate change.“Historic emission principle”should be the only reasonable standard to assign obligation among countries. Under this standard, in the system of Carbon Tax, different tax rat between developing and developed countries should be allowed. In Emission Trading Scheme, more allowances should be assigned to developing countries to ensure the safety of their economy. Developed countries may make use of their financial and technology advantages to help developing countries through CDM and“offset”programs, meanwhile earn more allowances for themselves. As no“Carbon Leakage”occurs, border measures is only an excuse of trade protectionism. Meanwhile on the account of that Border Carbon Adjustment measures is costly and not practical, it should not be carried out, and any border measures in future should be checkup by an expert group before they are carried out. EU and North America should decrease the share of overland transport to reduce the emission from transport, because road transport produce far more greenhouse emission than shipping. The last part of this article also presented the problems that still need to be solved.
本文力图在公平合理的原则下,提出通过国际贸易体系应对全球变暖,同时促进国际贸易发展的可行性建议,对后京都时代的气候制度安排提出参考建议和改进措施,旨在将全球变暖问题更好的融入国际贸易体系中,实现气候与贸易的共同发展。
本文分为导论、正文和结束语三个部分。
导论部分简要介绍了全球变暖问题以及人们为应对这一问题所做的努力和达成的一系列协议,也介绍了国内外学者对该问题的一些研究成果。
正文部分基于大量研究成果对全球变暖与国际贸易的关系进行了论证和细化分析,为通过国际贸易体系应对全球变暖的可行性打下基础。对国际上与贸易有关的三大减排措施进行了详细介绍及评析,探讨了各自的适用条件以及操作中需要注意的事项。通过对各国实际排放情况及国情的分析确定了历史累计标准为划分各国减排责任的唯一合理标准,并在此标准下讨论了各减排措施的应用。论述了通过加大部分部门的贸易开放减缓并适应全球变暖的重要性及可行性。分析了实现国际贸易与气候协调发展的体制保障并提出了相关建议。
结束语部分主要陈述了本文通过分析讨论得出的结论及有待解决的问题,并对未来发展进行了展望。在全球变暖趋势不可逆转或短时期内无法逆转的情况下,通过国际贸易体系积极主动的适应全球变暖十分重要,也是可行的,新贸易模式就是对全球变暖的经济适应。历史累计标准应该作为划分各国减排义务的唯一合理选择,发达国家应当承担更多的减排义务,在此标准下应该允许烟尘排放税系统中各国的差别税率,烟尘排放税可由各国率先在国家层面上积极实施。排放权交易体系是明确各国减排水平并在区域甚至全球范围内实现联合减排的有力工具,但实现该体系世界范围内的衔接十分困难,且在操作上有很多需要注意的地方。应给予发展中国家更多的排放权,保障发展中国家的经济安全。发达国家可利用自身经济及技术优势,通过清洁发展机制和“抵消”项目等帮助发展中国家减排,同时扩大自身排放权。在目前甚至一定时期内没有“碳泄漏”发生的情况下,边界调整措施只是贸易保护主义的一个借口,且操作上可行性低,成本高,执行过程复杂,短时期内不应该予以实行。即使以后需要其作为前两种措施的补充而实施时,也要经过WTO及UNFCCC联合成立的专家团认定。欧盟及北美应该降低其陆地运输的比例以降低贸易运输的温室气体排放。
According to the report of IPCC, the modern society pays far more attention on global warming than any other international business. Global warming deeply influenced the human life to such a degree that no other international business could bear comparison with. However, when we focus on the multilateral environmental agreements, we find consanguineous relationship between global warming and the world trade system. The Kyoto Protocol which aimed at restraining global warming seems to be a law of world trade. World trade system becomes very important in controlling the emission of greenhouse gas.
The purpose of this article is to propose several practical suggestions to mitigate and adapt to the global warming under the principle of justice, meanwhile promote the development of international trade. By combining the anti-global warming measures into the world trade system, realize the harmonious development between climate and trade.
This article is divided into three parts. Part one is foreword, briefly introduced the global warming problem and the efforts people have made to deal with this problem. Main relevant studies about this subject both domestic and abroad are also introduces in part one.
On the base of amount of studies relevant to this subject, part two analyzed the relationship between global warming and international trade. This part detailedly introduced and analyzed the three main trade related measures that are designed to reduce greenhouse emission, then respectively discussed their applicability and what need to be noticed in the practical operation. Part two also discussed the“historic emission principle”as the only reasonable standard to assign obligations among countries to reduce greenhouse emission, then discussed application of the three main measures under the“historic emission principle”. At last, this part emphasized the importance of trade and trade opening in responding to global warming, proposed several suggestions in cooperation between WTO and UNFCCC.
Part three is the conclusion. Based on the analyse above, the effect of trade and trade opening in adapting to global warming should be emphasized. New trade pattern should be taken as a means of economic adaptation to climate change.“Historic emission principle”should be the only reasonable standard to assign obligation among countries. Under this standard, in the system of Carbon Tax, different tax rat between developing and developed countries should be allowed. In Emission Trading Scheme, more allowances should be assigned to developing countries to ensure the safety of their economy. Developed countries may make use of their financial and technology advantages to help developing countries through CDM and“offset”programs, meanwhile earn more allowances for themselves. As no“Carbon Leakage”occurs, border measures is only an excuse of trade protectionism. Meanwhile on the account of that Border Carbon Adjustment measures is costly and not practical, it should not be carried out, and any border measures in future should be checkup by an expert group before they are carried out. EU and North America should decrease the share of overland transport to reduce the emission from transport, because road transport produce far more greenhouse emission than shipping. The last part of this article also presented the problems that still need to be solved.
引文
1 WTO. World Trade Report 2008: Trade in a Globalizing World[R]. Geneva: WTO, 2008. 178.
2 WTO Press/520/Rev[R], 2009. 20. www.wto.org, 2009.
3 Grossman, G.M. and Krueger, A.B. Environmental Impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement in Garber, P.M. (ed.).The US-Mexico Free Trade Agreement[M]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993. 13-56.
4 Torras, M. and Boyce, J. Income, Inequality and Pollution. Ecological Economics[J]. 1998. 147-160.
5 Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Franklyn, J., George, C. and Nomura, H. Further Development of the Methodology for a Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations. Final Report to theEuropean Commission Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management[R]. 2002. 150-200.
6 Estevadeordal, A., Shearer, M., and Suominen, K. (forthcoming). Market Access Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements in Estevadeordal, A., Suominen, K., and Teh, R. (eds.). Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2009. 25.
7谢杰、朱立志、浦华.温室效应对世界农业贸易的影响.财贸研究[J].2007.44.
8 Wilbanks, T.J. and Sathaye, J. Integrating mitigation and adaptation as possible responses to global climate change. Environment[J]. 2003. 28-38.
9 WTO-UNEP. Trade and Climate Change[R]. Switzerland: WTO Secretariat, 2009. 91.
10 Peterson, S. Monitoring, Accounting and Enforcement in Emission Trading Regimes[R]. 2003. 21.
11 Stern, N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. 308.
12 Philibert, C. and Reinaud, J. Emissions Trading: Taking stock and looking forward[R]. OECD-IEA, 2004. 44.
13庄贵阳.欧盟温室气体排放贸易机制及其对中国的启示.欧洲研究[J].2006,(3). 72.
14 Reinaud, J. Issues behind Competitiveness and Carbon Leakages, Focus on Heavy Industry. IEA Information Paper[R], 2008. 120.
15 Eurostat. Energy taxes in the Nordic countries– does the polluter pay?[R]. National Statistical Offices in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark, 2003. 43.
16 Marjukka Hiltunen. Economic environmental policy instruments in Finland. Helsinki[R]. Finnish environment institute, 2004. 24.
17 Agnolucci, P. Ex-post valuations of CO2-based taxes: a survey. Tyndall Center, Working Paper[R], 2004. 57.
21 Peterson institute. Global Warming and the World Trading System[R]. 2008. 20. www.petersoinstitute.org, 2008.
22 UNCTAD. UNCTAD Transport Newsletter[R] . Geneva. 2007. 28.
23 Hummels, D. Transportation Costs and International Trade in the Second Era of Globalization. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2007. 131-154.
24 WTO-UNEP. Trade and Climate Change[R]. Switzerland: WTO Secretariat, 2009. 110.
25 Keller, W. International Technology Diffusion. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2004. 752-782.
26 Ellerman, A.D. and Joskow, P.L. The European Union’s Emissions Trading System in Perspective. Pew Center on Global Climate Change[M], 2008. 51.
27 Missfeldt, F. and Hauff , J. The role of economic instruments in Owen, A.D. and Hanlex, N., (eds.). The Economics of Climate Change[M]. Routledge, New York, NY, 2004. 115-146.
28 Cosbey, A. Border Carbon Adjustment.. Trade and Climate Change Seminar, IISD, German Marshall Fund of the United States[R], 2008. 8.
29 Reinaud, J. Climate Policy and Carbon Leakage, Impacts of the European Emissions Trading Scheme on Aluminum. IEA Information Paper[N], 2008. 43.
30 Juliet Eilperin. Carbon Output Must Near Zero To Avert Danger, New Studies Say. Washington Post[N], 2008.13.www.washingtonpost.com.2008.
31 Reilly, J. and Hohmann, N. Climate Change and Agriculture: The Role of International Trade. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings[J]. 1993. 306-323.
32 Rosenzweig, C., Parry, M., Frohberg, K. and Fisher, G. Climate Change and World Food Supply[M]. Oxford: Environmental Change Unit, University of Oxford. 1993. 53.
33 Hertel, T. and Randhir, T. Trade Liberalization as a Vehicle for Adapting to Global Warming. Agriculture and Resource Economics Review[J]. 2000. 1-14.
[1]路国强.国际上与气候变化有关的排放贸易体系.国际瞭望[J].2007. 76-80.
[2]冯相昭、田春秀、任勇.高度重视气候变化与国际贸易关系新动向.国际瞭望[J]. 2008.76-78.
[3]谢杰、朱立志、浦华.温室效应对世界农业贸易的影响.财贸研究[J].2007.44.
[4]庄贵阳.欧盟温室气体排放贸易机制及其对中国的启示.欧洲研究[J].2006,(3):72.
[5] WTO. World Trade Report 2008: Trade in a Globalizing World[R]. Geneva: WTO, 2008.178.
[6] Grossman, G.M. and Krueger, A.B. Environmental Impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement in Garber, P.M. (ed.).The US-Mexico Free Trade Agreement[M]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 199.13-56.
[7] Cosbey, A. Border Carbon Adjustment.. Trade and Climate Change Seminar, IISD, German Marshall Fund of the United States[R], 2008. 8.
[8] Torras, M. and Boyce, J. Income, Inequality and Pollution. Ecological Economics[J]. 1998. 147-160.
[9] Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Franklyn, J., George, C. and Nomura, H. Further Development of the Methodology for a Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations. Final Report to the European Commission Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management[R]. 2002. 150-200.
[10] UNCTAD. UNCTAD Transport Newsletter[R] . Geneva. 2007. 28.
[11] Agnolucci, P. Ex-post valuations of CO2-based taxes: a survey. Tyndall Center, Working Paper[R], 2004. 57.
[12] Keller, W. International Technology Diffusion. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2004. 752-782.
[13] Ellerman, A.D. and Joskow, P.L. The European Union’s Emissions Trading System in Perspective. Pew Center on Global Climate Change[M], 2008. 51.
[14] Estevadeordal, A., Shearer, M., and Suominen, K. (forthcoming). Market Access Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements in Estevadeordal, A., Suominen, K., and Teh, R. (eds.). Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2009. 25.
[15] Wilbanks, T.J. and Sathaye, J. Integrating mitigation and adaptation as possible responses to global climate change. Environment[J]. 2003. 28-38.
[16] WTO-UNEP. Trade and Climate Change[R]. Switzerland: WTO Secretariat, 2009. 91.
[17] Peterson, S. Monitoring, Accounting and Enforcement in Emission Trading Regimes[R]. 2003. 21.
[18] Stern, N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. 308.
[19] Philibert, C. and Reinaud, J. Emissions Trading: Taking stock and looking forward[R]. OECD-IEA, 2004. 44.
[20] Reinaud, J. Issues behind Competitiveness and Carbon Leakages, Focus on Heavy Industry. IEA Information Paper[R], 2008. 120.
[21] Missfeldt, F. and Hauff , J. The role of economic instruments in Owen, A.D. and Hanlex, N., (eds.). The Economics of Climate Change[M]. Routledge, New York, NY, 2004. 115-146.
[22] Eurostat. Energy taxes in the Nordic countries– does the polluter pay?[R]. National Statistical Offices in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark, 2003. 43.
[23] Marjukka Hiltunen. Economic environmental policy instruments in Finland. Helsinki[R]. Finnish environment institute, 2004. 24
[24] Reinaud, J. Climate Policy and Carbon Leakage, Impacts of the European Emissions Trading Scheme on Aluminum. IEA Information Paper[N], 2008. 43.
[25] Hertel, T. and Randhir, T. Trade Liberalization as a Vehicle for Adapting to Global Warming. Agriculture and Resource Economics Review[J]. 2000. 1-14.
[26] Rosenzweig, C., Parry, M., Frohberg, K. and Fisher, G. Climate Change and World Food Supply[M]. Oxford: Environmental Change Unit, University of Oxford. 1993. 53.
[27] Hummels, D. Transportation Costs and International Trade in the Second Era of Globalization. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2007. 131-154.
[28] Reilly, J. and Hohmann, N. Climate Change and Agriculture: The Role of International Trade. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings[J]. 1993. 306-323.
[29]美国航空委员会的表面温度分析报告[R].http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp, 2008.
[30] Stern温室气体水平研究报告[R].2006.24.www.hm-treasury.gov.uk., 2006.
[31]美国海洋和气候委员会(NOAA)年度报告[R].2009.34 .www.ncdc.noaa.gov, 2009.
[32]联合国气候框架公约网站.http://unfccc.int., 2009.
[33] Peterson institute. Global Warming and the World Trading System[R]. 2008. 20. www.petersoinstitute.org, 2008
[34] WTO Press/520/Rev[R]. 2009. 20. www.wto.org.
[35] Juliet Eilperin. Carbon Output Must Near Zero To Avert Danger, New Studies Say. Washington Post[N], 2008. 13.www.washingtonpost.com. 2008.
2 WTO Press/520/Rev[R], 2009. 20. www.wto.org, 2009.
3 Grossman, G.M. and Krueger, A.B. Environmental Impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement in Garber, P.M. (ed.).The US-Mexico Free Trade Agreement[M]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993. 13-56.
4 Torras, M. and Boyce, J. Income, Inequality and Pollution. Ecological Economics[J]. 1998. 147-160.
5 Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Franklyn, J., George, C. and Nomura, H. Further Development of the Methodology for a Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations. Final Report to theEuropean Commission Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management[R]. 2002. 150-200.
6 Estevadeordal, A., Shearer, M., and Suominen, K. (forthcoming). Market Access Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements in Estevadeordal, A., Suominen, K., and Teh, R. (eds.). Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2009. 25.
7谢杰、朱立志、浦华.温室效应对世界农业贸易的影响.财贸研究[J].2007.44.
8 Wilbanks, T.J. and Sathaye, J. Integrating mitigation and adaptation as possible responses to global climate change. Environment[J]. 2003. 28-38.
9 WTO-UNEP. Trade and Climate Change[R]. Switzerland: WTO Secretariat, 2009. 91.
10 Peterson, S. Monitoring, Accounting and Enforcement in Emission Trading Regimes[R]. 2003. 21.
11 Stern, N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review[M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. 308.
12 Philibert, C. and Reinaud, J. Emissions Trading: Taking stock and looking forward[R]. OECD-IEA, 2004. 44.
13庄贵阳.欧盟温室气体排放贸易机制及其对中国的启示.欧洲研究[J].2006,(3). 72.
14 Reinaud, J. Issues behind Competitiveness and Carbon Leakages, Focus on Heavy Industry. IEA Information Paper[R], 2008. 120.
15 Eurostat. Energy taxes in the Nordic countries– does the polluter pay?[R]. National Statistical Offices in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark, 2003. 43.
16 Marjukka Hiltunen. Economic environmental policy instruments in Finland. Helsinki[R]. Finnish environment institute, 2004. 24.
17 Agnolucci, P. Ex-post valuations of CO2-based taxes: a survey. Tyndall Center, Working Paper[R], 2004. 57.
21 Peterson institute. Global Warming and the World Trading System[R]. 2008. 20. www.petersoinstitute.org, 2008.
22 UNCTAD. UNCTAD Transport Newsletter[R] . Geneva. 2007. 28.
23 Hummels, D. Transportation Costs and International Trade in the Second Era of Globalization. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2007. 131-154.
24 WTO-UNEP. Trade and Climate Change[R]. Switzerland: WTO Secretariat, 2009. 110.
25 Keller, W. International Technology Diffusion. Journal of Economic Perspectives[J]. 2004. 752-782.
26 Ellerman, A.D. and Joskow, P.L. The European Union’s Emissions Trading System in Perspective. Pew Center on Global Climate Change[M], 2008. 51.
27 Missfeldt, F. and Hauff , J. The role of economic instruments in Owen, A.D. and Hanlex, N., (eds.). The Economics of Climate Change[M]. Routledge, New York, NY, 2004. 115-146.
28 Cosbey, A. Border Carbon Adjustment.. Trade and Climate Change Seminar, IISD, German Marshall Fund of the United States[R], 2008. 8.
29 Reinaud, J. Climate Policy and Carbon Leakage, Impacts of the European Emissions Trading Scheme on Aluminum. IEA Information Paper[N], 2008. 43.
30 Juliet Eilperin. Carbon Output Must Near Zero To Avert Danger, New Studies Say. Washington Post[N], 2008.13.www.washingtonpost.com.2008.
31 Reilly, J. and Hohmann, N. Climate Change and Agriculture: The Role of International Trade. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings[J]. 1993. 306-323.
32 Rosenzweig, C., Parry, M., Frohberg, K. and Fisher, G. Climate Change and World Food Supply[M]. Oxford: Environmental Change Unit, University of Oxford. 1993. 53.
33 Hertel, T. and Randhir, T. Trade Liberalization as a Vehicle for Adapting to Global Warming. Agriculture and Resource Economics Review[J]. 2000. 1-14.
[1]路国强.国际上与气候变化有关的排放贸易体系.国际瞭望[J].2007. 76-80.
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