生态不平等交换、价值转移与发展中经济体的环境问题
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摘要
本文基于马克思主义经济学的生态不平等交换理论,结合价值转移概念,阐明资本主义世界体系的运动规律如何恶化发展中经济体生态环境的问题。我们构建了一个两部门置盐-森岛模型,证明一个部门的资本有机构成下降和剩余价值率上升会引起该部门价值转出,并提高其贸易的环境成本。在此基础上,计算了全球40个经济体的价值转移量和生态不平等交换程度。本文发现,存在生态不平等交换的重要原因是国际分工和实际工资差异导致经济体间的价值转移。国际贸易不平等直接造成了发达经济体和发展中经济体生态环境水平的差距。
Based on the combination of the ecological unequal exchange theory and the traditional unequal exchange theory, this paper demonstrates-using a theoretical and empirical approach-that the laws of the capitalist world system have a negative impact on the environment of developing economies. The paper proposes an Okishio-Morishima model and proves that the decrease in the organic composition of capital and the increase of surplus value rate in one sector result in a value outflow from this sector and significantly cause the increase of its ecological cost of in international trade. Based on the theoretical analysis, we calculate the volume of value transfer and ecological unequal exchange in 40 economies using the World Input-output Database from 1995 to 2009 by employing the Marelli-Ochoa approach. The results of the regressions illustrate that the value transfer among economies caused by the international division of labour and real wage differentials has an appreciable impact on the ecological unequal exchange, which therefore means that the inequality of international trade leads directly to diversity in the ecological environment level between developed and developing economies.
Based on the combination of the ecological unequal exchange theory and the traditional unequal exchange theory, this paper demonstrates-using a theoretical and empirical approach-that the laws of the capitalist world system have a negative impact on the environment of developing economies. The paper proposes an Okishio-Morishima model and proves that the decrease in the organic composition of capital and the increase of surplus value rate in one sector result in a value outflow from this sector and significantly cause the increase of its ecological cost of in international trade. Based on the theoretical analysis, we calculate the volume of value transfer and ecological unequal exchange in 40 economies using the World Input-output Database from 1995 to 2009 by employing the Marelli-Ochoa approach. The results of the regressions illustrate that the value transfer among economies caused by the international division of labour and real wage differentials has an appreciable impact on the ecological unequal exchange, which therefore means that the inequality of international trade leads directly to diversity in the ecological environment level between developed and developing economies.
引文
巴兰、斯威齐(1977,中译本):《垄断资本:论美国的经济和社会秩序》(南开大学政治经济学系译),北京:商务印书馆。
多斯桑托斯(1999,中译本):《帝国主义与依附》(毛金里、白凤森、杨衍永、齐海燕译),北京:社会科学文献出版社。
冯志轩(2016a):《不平等交换的历史动态:一个经验研究》,《政治经济学评论》第2期。
冯志轩(2016b):《国际价值、国际生产价格和利润平均化:一个经验研究》,《世界经济》第8期。
高峰(1996):《发达资本主义经济中的垄断与竞争—垄断资本理论研究》,天津:南开大学出版社。
景维民、张璐(2014):《环境管制、对外开放与中国工业的绿色技术进步》,《经济研究》第9期。
李锴、齐绍洲(2011):《贸易开放、经济增长与中国二氧化碳排放》,《经济研究》第11期。
列宁(2015,中译本):《帝国主义是资本主义的最高阶段》(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社。
林伯强、蒋竺均(2009):《中国二氧化碳的环境库兹涅茨曲线预测及影响因素分析》,《管理世界》第4期。
盛斌、吕越(2012):《外国直接投资对中国环境的影响——来自工业行业面板数据的实证研究》,《中国社会科学》第5期。
斯威齐(1997,中译本):《资本主义发展论》(陈观烈、秦亚男译),北京:商务印书馆。
许广月、宋德勇(2010):《中国碳排放环境库兹涅茨曲线的实证研究——基于省域面板数据》,《中国工业经济》第5期。
杨子晖、田磊(2017):《“污染天堂”假说与影响因素的中国省际研究》,《世界经济》第5期。
伊曼纽尔(1988,中译本):《不平等交换:对帝国主义贸易的研究》(文贯中、汪尧田等译),北京:中国对外经济贸易出版社。
Andersson, J. and Lindroth, M. “Ecologically Unsustainable Trade.” Ecological Economics, 2001, 37(1), pp.113-122.
Bauer, O. The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.
Beckerman, W. “Economic Growth and the Environment: Whose Growth? Whose Environment?” World Development, 1992, 20(4), pp.481-496.
Bonds, E. and Downey, L. “Green Technology and Ecologically Unequal Exchange: The Environmental and Social Consequences of Ecological Modernization in the World-System.” Journal of World-Systems Research, 2012, 18(2), pp.167-186.
Brand, U.; G?rg, C.; Hirsch, J. and Wissen, M. Conflicts in Environmental Regulation and the Internationalisation of the State: Contested Terrains. Abingdon: Routledge, 2008.
Brenner, R. The Boom and the Bubble: The US in the World Economy. London: Verso, 2003.
Brenner, R. The Economics of Global Turbulence: The Advanced Capitalist Economies from Long Boom to Long Downturn, 1945-2005. New York: Verso, 2006.
Brunnermeier, S. and Levinson, A. “Examining the Evidence on Environmental Regulations and Industry Location.” The Journal of Environment & Development, 2004, 13(1), pp.6-41.
Clark, B. and Foster, J. “Ecological Imperialism and the Global Metabolic Rift: Unequal Exchange and the Guano/Nitrates Trade.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3-4), pp.311-334.
De Bruyn, S.; Van Den Bergh, J. and Opschoor, J. “Economic Growth and Emissions: Reconsidering the Empirical Basis of Environmental Kuznets Curves.” Ecological Economics, 1998, 25(2), pp.161-175.
Dietzenbacher, E.; Los, B.; Stehrer, R.; Timmer, M. and De Vries, G. “The Construction of World Input-Output Tables in the WIOD Project.” Economic Systems Research, 2013, 25(1), pp.71-98.
Dinda, S. “Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: A Survey.” Ecological Economics, 2004, 49(4), pp.431-455.
Foot, S. and Webber, M. “Unequal Exchange and Uneven Development.” Environment and Planning D, 1983, 1, pp.281-304.
Foster, B.; McChesney, W. and Jonna, J. “The Internationalization of Monopoly Capital.” Monthly Review, 2011, 63(2), pp.1-23.
Frey, S.; Gellert, P. and Dahms, H., Ecological Unequal Exchange: Environmental Justice in Comparative and Historical Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Gibson, B. “Unequal Exchange: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Findings.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 1980, 12(3), pp.15-35.
Goldman, M. Imperial Nature: The World Bank and Struggles for Social Justice in the Age of Globalization. New Heaven: Yale University Press, 2006.
Grossmann, H. The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System. London: Pluto, 1992.
Hornborg, A. “Towards an Ecological Theory of Unequal Exchange: Articulating World System Theory and Ecological Economics.” Ecological Economics, 1998, 25(1), pp.127-136.
Hornborg, A. “Zero-Sum World: Challenges in Conceptualizing Environmental Load Displacement and Ecologically Unequal Exchange in the World-System.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3-4), pp.237-262.
Hornborg, A. “Ecological Economics, Marxism, and Technological Progress: Some Explorations of the Conceptual Foundations of Theories of Ecologically Unequal Exchange.” Ecological Economics, 2014, 105, pp.11-18.
Jorgenson, A. “The Sociology of Unequal Exchange in Ecological Context: A Panel Study of Lower-Income Countries, 1975-2000.” Sociological Forum, 2009, 24(1), pp.22-46.
Kheder, S. and Zugravu-Soilita, N. “The Pollution Haven Hypothesis: A Geographic Economy Model in a Comparative Study.” SSRN working paper, 2008.
Leiter, A.; Parolini, A. and Winner, H. “Environmental Regulation and Investment: Evidence from European Industry Data.” Ecological Economics, 2011, 70(4), pp.759-770.
Lynch, M. “A Marxian Interpretation of the Environmental Kuznets Curve: Global Capitalism and the Rise and Fall (and Rise) of Pollution.” Capitalism Nature Socialism, 2016, 27(4), pp.77-95.
Marelli, E. “Empirical Estimation of Intersectoral and Interregional Transfers of Surplus Value: The Case of Italy.” Journal of Regional Science, 1983, 23(1), pp.49-70.
Moran, D.; Lenzen, M.; Kanemoto, K. and Geschke, A. “Does Ecologically Unequal Exchange Occur?” Ecological Economics, 2013, 89, pp.177-186.
Morishima, M. Marx’s Economics: A Dual Theory of Value and Growth. Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1973.
Nakajima, A. and Izumi, H. “Economic Development and Unequal Exchange among Nations: Analysis of U.S., Japan, and South Korea.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 1995, 27(3), pp.86-94.
Ochoa, E. “Values, Prices, and Wage-Profit Curves in the US Economy.” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1989, 13(3), pp.413-429.
Pérez-Rincón, M. “Colombian International Trade from a Physical Perspective: Towards an Ecological ‘Prebisch Thesis’.” Ecological Economics, 2006, 59(4), pp.519-529.
Prebisch, R. “Commercial Policy in the Underdeveloped Countries.” The American Economic Review, 1959, 49(2), pp.251-273.
Rice, J. “Ecological Unequal Exchange: International Trade and Uneven Utilization of Environmental Space in the World System.” Social Forces, 2007, 85(3), pp.1369-1392.
Roberts, J. and Parks, B. “Ecologically Unequal Exchange, Ecological Debt, and Climate Justice: The History and Implications of Three Related Ideas for a New Social Movement.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3/4), pp.385-409.
R?pke, I. “Trade, Development and Sustainability.” Ecological Economics, 1994, 9(1), pp.13-22.
R?pke, I. “Ecological Unequal Exchange.” Human Ecology in the New Millennium (Journal of Human Ecology Special Issue 10), 2001, pp.35-40.
Seretis, A. and Tsaliki, P. “Absolute Advantage and International Trade: Evidence from Four Euro-Zone Economies.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 2016, 48(3), pp.438-451.
Shandra, J.; Leckband, C.; McKinney, L. and London, B. “Ecologically Unequal Exchange, World Polity, and Biodiversity Loss: A Cross-National Analysis.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50, pp.285-310.
Sheppard E. “Trade, Globalization and Uneven Development: Entanglements of Geographical Political Economy.” Progress in Human Geography, 2012, 36(1), pp.44-71.
Taylor, L.; Rezai, A. and Foley, D. “An Integrated Approach to Climate Change, Income Distribution, Employment, and Economic Growth.” Ecological Economics, 2016, 121, pp.196-205.
Tsaliki, P.; Paraskevopoulou, C. and Tsoulfidis, L. “Unequal Exchange and Absolute Cost Advantage: Evidence from the Trade between Greece and Germany.” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 2017.
Wagner, U. and Timmins, C. “Agglomeration Effects in Foreign Direct Investment and the Pollution Haven Hypothesis.” Environmental and Resource Economics, 2009, 43(2), pp.231-256.
Yu, Y.; Feng, K. and Hubacek, K. “China’s Unequal Ecological Exchange.” Ecological Indicators, 2014, 47, pp.156-163.
(1)本文“南北”均分别对应不发达与发达经济体。
(2)马克思(2004a):《资本论》(第一卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第51-54页。马克思(2004b):《资本论》(第三卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第159-192页。
(3)马克思(2004a):《资本论》(第一卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第194-206页。
(4)相对价格的另一个根,由于,所以此根必为负,没有经济意义,故略去。
(5)这里实际加总了全球范围内的同一系数,加总方法参照投入产出表加总的一般逻辑(冯志轩,2016b)。
多斯桑托斯(1999,中译本):《帝国主义与依附》(毛金里、白凤森、杨衍永、齐海燕译),北京:社会科学文献出版社。
冯志轩(2016a):《不平等交换的历史动态:一个经验研究》,《政治经济学评论》第2期。
冯志轩(2016b):《国际价值、国际生产价格和利润平均化:一个经验研究》,《世界经济》第8期。
高峰(1996):《发达资本主义经济中的垄断与竞争—垄断资本理论研究》,天津:南开大学出版社。
景维民、张璐(2014):《环境管制、对外开放与中国工业的绿色技术进步》,《经济研究》第9期。
李锴、齐绍洲(2011):《贸易开放、经济增长与中国二氧化碳排放》,《经济研究》第11期。
列宁(2015,中译本):《帝国主义是资本主义的最高阶段》(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社。
林伯强、蒋竺均(2009):《中国二氧化碳的环境库兹涅茨曲线预测及影响因素分析》,《管理世界》第4期。
盛斌、吕越(2012):《外国直接投资对中国环境的影响——来自工业行业面板数据的实证研究》,《中国社会科学》第5期。
斯威齐(1997,中译本):《资本主义发展论》(陈观烈、秦亚男译),北京:商务印书馆。
许广月、宋德勇(2010):《中国碳排放环境库兹涅茨曲线的实证研究——基于省域面板数据》,《中国工业经济》第5期。
杨子晖、田磊(2017):《“污染天堂”假说与影响因素的中国省际研究》,《世界经济》第5期。
伊曼纽尔(1988,中译本):《不平等交换:对帝国主义贸易的研究》(文贯中、汪尧田等译),北京:中国对外经济贸易出版社。
Andersson, J. and Lindroth, M. “Ecologically Unsustainable Trade.” Ecological Economics, 2001, 37(1), pp.113-122.
Bauer, O. The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.
Beckerman, W. “Economic Growth and the Environment: Whose Growth? Whose Environment?” World Development, 1992, 20(4), pp.481-496.
Bonds, E. and Downey, L. “Green Technology and Ecologically Unequal Exchange: The Environmental and Social Consequences of Ecological Modernization in the World-System.” Journal of World-Systems Research, 2012, 18(2), pp.167-186.
Brand, U.; G?rg, C.; Hirsch, J. and Wissen, M. Conflicts in Environmental Regulation and the Internationalisation of the State: Contested Terrains. Abingdon: Routledge, 2008.
Brenner, R. The Boom and the Bubble: The US in the World Economy. London: Verso, 2003.
Brenner, R. The Economics of Global Turbulence: The Advanced Capitalist Economies from Long Boom to Long Downturn, 1945-2005. New York: Verso, 2006.
Brunnermeier, S. and Levinson, A. “Examining the Evidence on Environmental Regulations and Industry Location.” The Journal of Environment & Development, 2004, 13(1), pp.6-41.
Clark, B. and Foster, J. “Ecological Imperialism and the Global Metabolic Rift: Unequal Exchange and the Guano/Nitrates Trade.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3-4), pp.311-334.
De Bruyn, S.; Van Den Bergh, J. and Opschoor, J. “Economic Growth and Emissions: Reconsidering the Empirical Basis of Environmental Kuznets Curves.” Ecological Economics, 1998, 25(2), pp.161-175.
Dietzenbacher, E.; Los, B.; Stehrer, R.; Timmer, M. and De Vries, G. “The Construction of World Input-Output Tables in the WIOD Project.” Economic Systems Research, 2013, 25(1), pp.71-98.
Dinda, S. “Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: A Survey.” Ecological Economics, 2004, 49(4), pp.431-455.
Foot, S. and Webber, M. “Unequal Exchange and Uneven Development.” Environment and Planning D, 1983, 1, pp.281-304.
Foster, B.; McChesney, W. and Jonna, J. “The Internationalization of Monopoly Capital.” Monthly Review, 2011, 63(2), pp.1-23.
Frey, S.; Gellert, P. and Dahms, H., Ecological Unequal Exchange: Environmental Justice in Comparative and Historical Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Gibson, B. “Unequal Exchange: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Findings.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 1980, 12(3), pp.15-35.
Goldman, M. Imperial Nature: The World Bank and Struggles for Social Justice in the Age of Globalization. New Heaven: Yale University Press, 2006.
Grossmann, H. The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System. London: Pluto, 1992.
Hornborg, A. “Towards an Ecological Theory of Unequal Exchange: Articulating World System Theory and Ecological Economics.” Ecological Economics, 1998, 25(1), pp.127-136.
Hornborg, A. “Zero-Sum World: Challenges in Conceptualizing Environmental Load Displacement and Ecologically Unequal Exchange in the World-System.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3-4), pp.237-262.
Hornborg, A. “Ecological Economics, Marxism, and Technological Progress: Some Explorations of the Conceptual Foundations of Theories of Ecologically Unequal Exchange.” Ecological Economics, 2014, 105, pp.11-18.
Jorgenson, A. “The Sociology of Unequal Exchange in Ecological Context: A Panel Study of Lower-Income Countries, 1975-2000.” Sociological Forum, 2009, 24(1), pp.22-46.
Kheder, S. and Zugravu-Soilita, N. “The Pollution Haven Hypothesis: A Geographic Economy Model in a Comparative Study.” SSRN working paper, 2008.
Leiter, A.; Parolini, A. and Winner, H. “Environmental Regulation and Investment: Evidence from European Industry Data.” Ecological Economics, 2011, 70(4), pp.759-770.
Lynch, M. “A Marxian Interpretation of the Environmental Kuznets Curve: Global Capitalism and the Rise and Fall (and Rise) of Pollution.” Capitalism Nature Socialism, 2016, 27(4), pp.77-95.
Marelli, E. “Empirical Estimation of Intersectoral and Interregional Transfers of Surplus Value: The Case of Italy.” Journal of Regional Science, 1983, 23(1), pp.49-70.
Moran, D.; Lenzen, M.; Kanemoto, K. and Geschke, A. “Does Ecologically Unequal Exchange Occur?” Ecological Economics, 2013, 89, pp.177-186.
Morishima, M. Marx’s Economics: A Dual Theory of Value and Growth. Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1973.
Nakajima, A. and Izumi, H. “Economic Development and Unequal Exchange among Nations: Analysis of U.S., Japan, and South Korea.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 1995, 27(3), pp.86-94.
Ochoa, E. “Values, Prices, and Wage-Profit Curves in the US Economy.” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1989, 13(3), pp.413-429.
Pérez-Rincón, M. “Colombian International Trade from a Physical Perspective: Towards an Ecological ‘Prebisch Thesis’.” Ecological Economics, 2006, 59(4), pp.519-529.
Prebisch, R. “Commercial Policy in the Underdeveloped Countries.” The American Economic Review, 1959, 49(2), pp.251-273.
Rice, J. “Ecological Unequal Exchange: International Trade and Uneven Utilization of Environmental Space in the World System.” Social Forces, 2007, 85(3), pp.1369-1392.
Roberts, J. and Parks, B. “Ecologically Unequal Exchange, Ecological Debt, and Climate Justice: The History and Implications of Three Related Ideas for a New Social Movement.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50(3/4), pp.385-409.
R?pke, I. “Trade, Development and Sustainability.” Ecological Economics, 1994, 9(1), pp.13-22.
R?pke, I. “Ecological Unequal Exchange.” Human Ecology in the New Millennium (Journal of Human Ecology Special Issue 10), 2001, pp.35-40.
Seretis, A. and Tsaliki, P. “Absolute Advantage and International Trade: Evidence from Four Euro-Zone Economies.” Review of Radical Political Economics, 2016, 48(3), pp.438-451.
Shandra, J.; Leckband, C.; McKinney, L. and London, B. “Ecologically Unequal Exchange, World Polity, and Biodiversity Loss: A Cross-National Analysis.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2009, 50, pp.285-310.
Sheppard E. “Trade, Globalization and Uneven Development: Entanglements of Geographical Political Economy.” Progress in Human Geography, 2012, 36(1), pp.44-71.
Taylor, L.; Rezai, A. and Foley, D. “An Integrated Approach to Climate Change, Income Distribution, Employment, and Economic Growth.” Ecological Economics, 2016, 121, pp.196-205.
Tsaliki, P.; Paraskevopoulou, C. and Tsoulfidis, L. “Unequal Exchange and Absolute Cost Advantage: Evidence from the Trade between Greece and Germany.” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 2017.
Wagner, U. and Timmins, C. “Agglomeration Effects in Foreign Direct Investment and the Pollution Haven Hypothesis.” Environmental and Resource Economics, 2009, 43(2), pp.231-256.
Yu, Y.; Feng, K. and Hubacek, K. “China’s Unequal Ecological Exchange.” Ecological Indicators, 2014, 47, pp.156-163.
(1)本文“南北”均分别对应不发达与发达经济体。
(2)马克思(2004a):《资本论》(第一卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第51-54页。马克思(2004b):《资本论》(第三卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第159-192页。
(3)马克思(2004a):《资本论》(第一卷)(中共中央编译局译),北京:人民出版社,第194-206页。
(4)相对价格的另一个根,由于,所以此根必为负,没有经济意义,故略去。
(5)这里实际加总了全球范围内的同一系数,加总方法参照投入产出表加总的一般逻辑(冯志轩,2016b)。