教练心理学理论发展与研究现状
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摘要
教练心理学是一门发掘人的潜力、促进个人身心健康和职业发展的心理科学。作为心理学领域一个新兴的分支学科,教练心理学已受到越来越多国际学者的关注和研究。本文旨在系统地介绍教练心理学的理论发展与研究现状,包括其概念与起源、哲学基础与原理、主要流派,以及教练心理学在管理、教育、个人发展、竞技运动等领域的实证研究和应用,并提出了未来的研究方向,为教练心理学的理论与应用研究提供参考。
Coaching psychology is an emerging sub-discipline of psychological science that aims to unlock people's potential and enhance individual's psychological well-being and professional performance.It has attracted increasing attention from scholars from various fields and they have conducted extensive studies on this topic.This article systematically introduces the theories,research and practice of coaching psychology,including its original concepts,philosophical foundation and meta-theory,main theoretical approaches and empirical studies in the field of management,education,sports,and personal development.The current research also suggests directions for further theoretical development,scientific investigation and implementation of coaching psychology.
Coaching psychology is an emerging sub-discipline of psychological science that aims to unlock people's potential and enhance individual's psychological well-being and professional performance.It has attracted increasing attention from scholars from various fields and they have conducted extensive studies on this topic.This article systematically introduces the theories,research and practice of coaching psychology,including its original concepts,philosophical foundation and meta-theory,main theoretical approaches and empirical studies in the field of management,education,sports,and personal development.The current research also suggests directions for further theoretical development,scientific investigation and implementation of coaching psychology.
引文
王青.(2017).教练心理学:促进成长的艺术.上海:华东师范大学出版社.
Allison,S.,& Harbour,M..(2009).The coaching toolkit:A practical guide for your school.London:Sage.
Biggs,A.,Brough,P.,& Barbour,J.P.(2014).Enhancing work-related attitudes and work engagement:A quasi-experimental study of the impact of an organizational intervention.International Journal of Stress Management,21,43-68.
Biswas-Diener,R.(2010).Practicing positive psychology coaching:Assessment,activities,and strategies for success.Hoboken NJ:John Wiley & Sons.
Biswas-Diener,R.,& Dean,B..(2010).Positive psychology coaching:Putting the science of happiness to work for your clients.Hoboken NJ:John Wiley & Sons.
Bowles,S.,Cunningham,C.J.L.,De La Rosa,G.M.,& Picano,J.(2007).Coaching leaders in middle and executive management:Goals,performance,buy-in.Leadership and Organizational Development Journal,28(5),388-408.
Bozer,G.,& Sarros,J.(2012).Examining the effectiveness of executive coaching on coachees’ performance in the Israeli context.International Journal of Evidence Based on Coaching and Mentoring,10(1),14-32.
Brockbank,A.,& McGill,I.(2006).Facilitating reflective learning through mentoring and coaching.London:Kogan Page.
Burley,S.,& Pomphrey,C.(2011).Mentoring and coaching in schools:Professional learning through collaborative inquiry.Oxon:Routledge.
Campbell,M.A.,& Gardner,S.(2005).A pilot study to assess the effects of life coaching with Year 12 students.In A.G.M.Cavanagh,& T.Kemp(Ed.),Evidence-based coaching(pp.159-169).Brisbane:Australian Academic Press.
Cavanagh,M.J.,& Spence,G.B.(2012).Mindfulness in coaching:Philosophy,psychology,or just a useful skill?In J.Passmore,D.B.Peterson,T.Freire(Ed.),The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring(pp.112-134).Chichester:John Wiley & Sons.
Cerni T.,Curtis,G.J.,& Colmar,S.H..(2010).Executive coaching can enhance transformational leadership.International Coaching Psychology Review,5(1),81-85.
Connor,M.,& Pokora,J.(2007).Coaching and mentoring at work:Principles for effective practice.London:Routledge/Falmer.
Cooperrider,D.L.(1986).Appreciative inquiry:Toward a methodology for understanding and enhancing organizational innovation.Cleveland,OH:Case Western Reserve University.
Cornett,J.,& Knight,J.(2009).Research on coaching.Coaching Approaches & Perspectives,192-216.
Csikszentmihalyi,M.(1997).Finding flow:The psychology of engagement with everyday life.New York:Basic Books.
De Jong,P.,& Berg,I..(2008).Interviewing for solutions.New York:Brooks/Cole.
de Shazer,S.(1985).Keys to Solution in Brief Therapy.New York:Norton.
de Shazer,S.,Berg,I.K.,Lipchik,E.,Nunnally,E.,Molnar,A.,& Gingerich,W.,et al.(1986).Brief therapy:Focused solution development.Family Process,25(2),207-221.
Devine,M.,Meyers,R.,& Houssemand,C.(2013).How can coaching make a positive impact within educational settings?Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,93(1),1382-1389.
Downey,M.(2003).Effective coaching:Lessons from the coach’s coach.Belmont:Thomson-Texere.
Ellis,A.(1994).Reason and emotion in psychotherapy.New York:Birch Lane Press.
Falc?o,W.R.,Bloom,G.A.,& Gilbert,W.D.(2012).Coaches’ perceptions of a coach training program designed to promote youth developmental outcomes.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,24(4),429-444.
Garvey,R.,Stokes,P.,& Megginson,D.(2009).Coaching and mentoring:Theory and practice.London:Sage.
Gould,D.,Collins,K.,Lauer,L.,& Chung,Y.(2007).Coaching life skills through football:A study of award winning high school coaches.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,19(1),16-37.
Grant,A.M.(2001).Coaching for enhanced performance:Comparing cognitive and behavioral approaches to coaching.Paper presented at the 3rd International Spearman Seminar,Extending Intelligence,Enhancement and New Constructs,Sydney.
Grant,A.M.(2003).The impact of life coaching on goal attainment,metacognition and mental health.Social Behavior & Personality,31(3),253-264.
Grant,A.M.(2006).A personal perspective on professional coaching and the development of coaching psychology.International Coaching Psychology Review,1(1),12-22.
Grant,A.M.(2008).Personal life coaching for coaches-in-training enhances goal attainment,insight and learning.Coaching:An International Journal of Theory,Research and Practice,1(1),54-70.
Grant,A.M.(2013).The Efficacy of executive coaching in times of organisational change.Journal of Change Management,14(2),258-280.
Grant,A.M.(2014).Autonomy support,relationship satisfaction and goal focus in the coach-coachee relationship:Which best predicts coaching success?Coach:An International Journal of Theory Research and Practice,7,18-38.
Grant,A.M.,& Cavanagh,M.J.(2007).Evidence-based coaching:Flourishing or languishing?Australian Psychologist,42(2),239-254.
Grant,A.M.,Curtayne,L.,& Burton G.(2009).Executive coaching enhances goal attainment,resilience and workplace well-being:A randomised controlled study.Journal of Positive Psychology,4,396-407.
Grant,A.M.,Green S.L.,& Rynsaardt,J.(2010).Developmental coaching for high school teachers:Executive coaching goes to school.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,62,151-168.
Green,L.S.,Oades,L.G.,& Grant,A.M.(2006).Cognitive-behavioral,solution-focused life coaching:Enhancing goal striving,well-being,and hope.The Journal of Positive Psychology,1(3),142-149.
Grover,S.,& Furnham,A.(2016).Coaching as a developmental intervention in organisations:A systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it.PLoS ONE,11(7),e0159137.
Hall,E.(2014).An integrative literature review of motivational interviewing and co-active life coaching as potential interventions for positive behaviour change in adolescents.International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,12(2),75-90.
Joseph,S.(2006).Person-centerd coaching psychology:A meta-theoretical perspective.International Coaching Psychology Review,1,47-54.
Joyce,B.,& Showers,B.(1987).Low-cost arrangements for peer-coaching.Journal of Staff Development,8,22-24.
Kampa-Kokesch,S.,& Anderson,M.Z.(2001).Executive coaching:A comprehensive review of the literature.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,53(4),205-228.
Kenyon,M.,Young,F.,Mufti,G.J.,Pagliuca,A.,Lim,Z.,& Ream,E.(2015).Life coaching following haematopoietic stem cell transplantation:a mixed-method investigation of feasibility and acceptability.European Journal Of Cancer Care,24(4),531-541.
Ladegard,G,& Gjerde,S.(2014).Leadership coaching,leader role-efficacy,and trust in subordinates.A mixed methods study assessing leadership coaching as a leadership development tool.Leadersh Q,25,631-646.
Luthans,F.,& Peterson,S.J.(2003).360-degree feedback with systematic coaching:Empirical analysis suggests a winning combination.Human Resource Management,42,243-256.
MacKie,D.(2014).The effectiveness of strength-based executive coaching in enhancing full range leadership development:A controlled study.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,66(2),118-137.
Madden,W.,Green,L.S.,& Grant,A.M.(2011).A pilot study evaluating strengths-based coaching for primary school students:Enhancing engagement and hope.International Coaching Psychology Review,7,71-83.
Mermelshtine,R.(2017).Parent-child learing interactions:A review of the literature on scaffolding.British Journal of Educational Psychology,87,241-254.
Miller,W.R.,& Rollnick,S.(2002).Motivational interviewing:Preparing people for change(2nd ed.).New York:Guilford Press.
Moen,F.,& Federici,R.A.(2012).The effect from external executive coaching.Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research & Practice,5(2),113-131.
Neenan,M.,& Palmer,S.(2001).Cognitive behavior coaching.Stress News,13(3),15-18.
O’Connor,S.,& Cavanagh,M.(2013).The coaching ripple effect:The effects of developmental coaching on wellbeing across organisational networks.Psychology of Well-Being:Theory,Research Practice,3,1-23.
Palmer,S.,& Whybrow,A.(2008).Handbook of coaching psychology:A guide for practitioners.Hove:Routledge.
Passmore,J.,& Brown,A.(2009).Coaching non-adult students for enhanced examination performance:a longitudinal study.Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research & Practice,2(1),54-64.
Pea,R.D.(2004).The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning,education,and human activity.The Journal of the Learning Sciences,13,423-451.
Peltier,B.(2001).The psychology of executive coaching:Theory and practice.Abingdon:Routledge.
Ratiu,L.,David,O.,& Baban,A.(2017).Developing managerial skills through coaching:Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral coaching program.Journal of Rational Emotive & Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,35,88-110.
Rogers,C.R.(1980).A way of being.Boston,MA:Houghton Mifflin.
Rogoff,B.(1990).Apprenticeship in thinking:Cognitive development in social context.New York:Oxford University Press.
Rollnick,S.,& Miller,W.R.(1995).What is motivational interviewing?Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy,23,325-334.
Seligman,M.,Rashid,T.,& Parks,A.C.(2006).Positive psychotherapy.American Psychologist,61(8),774-788.
Sklare,G.(2005).Brief counseling that works:A solution-focused approach for school counselors.Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.
Stelter,R.,& Law,H.(2010).Coaching—narrative-collaborative practice.International Coaching Psychology Review,5(2),152-164.
Stelter,R.(2014).A guide to third generation coaching:Narrative-collaborative theory and practice.New York:Springer.
Stober,D.R.,& Grant,A.M.(2006).Evidence based coaching:Putting best practices to work for your clients.New Jersey:Wiley and Sons.
Turnbull,J.(2009).Coaching for learning:A practical guide for encouraging learning.London:Continuum.
Wang,Q.(2013).Towards a systems model of coaching for learning:Empirical lessons from the UK secondary classroom context.International Coaching Psychology Review,8(1),35-51.
Wang,Q.(2016).Art-based narrative interviewing as a dual methodological process:A participatory research method and an approach to coaching in secondary education.International Coaching Psychology Review,11(1),39-56.
Wang,Q.(2018).Coaching psychology for learning:Facilitating growth in education.London:Routledge.
Wang,Q.,Li,H.,& Pang,W.(2016).From PBL tutoring to PBL coaching in undergraduate medical education:An interpretative phenomenological analysis study.Medical Education Online,21,1-13.
Wang,Q.,Li,H.,Pang,W.,Liang,S.,& Su,Y.(2016).Developing an integrated framework of problem-based learning and coaching psychology in undergraduate medical education:A participatory research.BMC Medical Education,16(2),1-14.
Wang,Q.,Wen,T.,& He,Y.(2018).Coaching psychology in Chinese vocational schools:What works and what doesn’t?In press.
Wheeler,S.D.(2004).The effectiveness of a community based life skills training program for traumatic brain injury.(Ph.D.),Virginia Commonwealth University.
Whitmore,J.(2009).Coaching for Performance(4th ed.).London:Nicholas Bearley.
Wilkes,S.,& Telfair,T.(2008).Leadership Coaching in Higher Education.Academic Leader,24,7-8.
Wood,D.,Bruner,J.S.,& Ross,G.(1976).The role of tutoring in problem solving.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,17(2),89-100.
Allison,S.,& Harbour,M..(2009).The coaching toolkit:A practical guide for your school.London:Sage.
Biggs,A.,Brough,P.,& Barbour,J.P.(2014).Enhancing work-related attitudes and work engagement:A quasi-experimental study of the impact of an organizational intervention.International Journal of Stress Management,21,43-68.
Biswas-Diener,R.(2010).Practicing positive psychology coaching:Assessment,activities,and strategies for success.Hoboken NJ:John Wiley & Sons.
Biswas-Diener,R.,& Dean,B..(2010).Positive psychology coaching:Putting the science of happiness to work for your clients.Hoboken NJ:John Wiley & Sons.
Bowles,S.,Cunningham,C.J.L.,De La Rosa,G.M.,& Picano,J.(2007).Coaching leaders in middle and executive management:Goals,performance,buy-in.Leadership and Organizational Development Journal,28(5),388-408.
Bozer,G.,& Sarros,J.(2012).Examining the effectiveness of executive coaching on coachees’ performance in the Israeli context.International Journal of Evidence Based on Coaching and Mentoring,10(1),14-32.
Brockbank,A.,& McGill,I.(2006).Facilitating reflective learning through mentoring and coaching.London:Kogan Page.
Burley,S.,& Pomphrey,C.(2011).Mentoring and coaching in schools:Professional learning through collaborative inquiry.Oxon:Routledge.
Campbell,M.A.,& Gardner,S.(2005).A pilot study to assess the effects of life coaching with Year 12 students.In A.G.M.Cavanagh,& T.Kemp(Ed.),Evidence-based coaching(pp.159-169).Brisbane:Australian Academic Press.
Cavanagh,M.J.,& Spence,G.B.(2012).Mindfulness in coaching:Philosophy,psychology,or just a useful skill?In J.Passmore,D.B.Peterson,T.Freire(Ed.),The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring(pp.112-134).Chichester:John Wiley & Sons.
Cerni T.,Curtis,G.J.,& Colmar,S.H..(2010).Executive coaching can enhance transformational leadership.International Coaching Psychology Review,5(1),81-85.
Connor,M.,& Pokora,J.(2007).Coaching and mentoring at work:Principles for effective practice.London:Routledge/Falmer.
Cooperrider,D.L.(1986).Appreciative inquiry:Toward a methodology for understanding and enhancing organizational innovation.Cleveland,OH:Case Western Reserve University.
Cornett,J.,& Knight,J.(2009).Research on coaching.Coaching Approaches & Perspectives,192-216.
Csikszentmihalyi,M.(1997).Finding flow:The psychology of engagement with everyday life.New York:Basic Books.
De Jong,P.,& Berg,I..(2008).Interviewing for solutions.New York:Brooks/Cole.
de Shazer,S.(1985).Keys to Solution in Brief Therapy.New York:Norton.
de Shazer,S.,Berg,I.K.,Lipchik,E.,Nunnally,E.,Molnar,A.,& Gingerich,W.,et al.(1986).Brief therapy:Focused solution development.Family Process,25(2),207-221.
Devine,M.,Meyers,R.,& Houssemand,C.(2013).How can coaching make a positive impact within educational settings?Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,93(1),1382-1389.
Downey,M.(2003).Effective coaching:Lessons from the coach’s coach.Belmont:Thomson-Texere.
Ellis,A.(1994).Reason and emotion in psychotherapy.New York:Birch Lane Press.
Falc?o,W.R.,Bloom,G.A.,& Gilbert,W.D.(2012).Coaches’ perceptions of a coach training program designed to promote youth developmental outcomes.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,24(4),429-444.
Garvey,R.,Stokes,P.,& Megginson,D.(2009).Coaching and mentoring:Theory and practice.London:Sage.
Gould,D.,Collins,K.,Lauer,L.,& Chung,Y.(2007).Coaching life skills through football:A study of award winning high school coaches.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,19(1),16-37.
Grant,A.M.(2001).Coaching for enhanced performance:Comparing cognitive and behavioral approaches to coaching.Paper presented at the 3rd International Spearman Seminar,Extending Intelligence,Enhancement and New Constructs,Sydney.
Grant,A.M.(2003).The impact of life coaching on goal attainment,metacognition and mental health.Social Behavior & Personality,31(3),253-264.
Grant,A.M.(2006).A personal perspective on professional coaching and the development of coaching psychology.International Coaching Psychology Review,1(1),12-22.
Grant,A.M.(2008).Personal life coaching for coaches-in-training enhances goal attainment,insight and learning.Coaching:An International Journal of Theory,Research and Practice,1(1),54-70.
Grant,A.M.(2013).The Efficacy of executive coaching in times of organisational change.Journal of Change Management,14(2),258-280.
Grant,A.M.(2014).Autonomy support,relationship satisfaction and goal focus in the coach-coachee relationship:Which best predicts coaching success?Coach:An International Journal of Theory Research and Practice,7,18-38.
Grant,A.M.,& Cavanagh,M.J.(2007).Evidence-based coaching:Flourishing or languishing?Australian Psychologist,42(2),239-254.
Grant,A.M.,Curtayne,L.,& Burton G.(2009).Executive coaching enhances goal attainment,resilience and workplace well-being:A randomised controlled study.Journal of Positive Psychology,4,396-407.
Grant,A.M.,Green S.L.,& Rynsaardt,J.(2010).Developmental coaching for high school teachers:Executive coaching goes to school.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,62,151-168.
Green,L.S.,Oades,L.G.,& Grant,A.M.(2006).Cognitive-behavioral,solution-focused life coaching:Enhancing goal striving,well-being,and hope.The Journal of Positive Psychology,1(3),142-149.
Grover,S.,& Furnham,A.(2016).Coaching as a developmental intervention in organisations:A systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it.PLoS ONE,11(7),e0159137.
Hall,E.(2014).An integrative literature review of motivational interviewing and co-active life coaching as potential interventions for positive behaviour change in adolescents.International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,12(2),75-90.
Joseph,S.(2006).Person-centerd coaching psychology:A meta-theoretical perspective.International Coaching Psychology Review,1,47-54.
Joyce,B.,& Showers,B.(1987).Low-cost arrangements for peer-coaching.Journal of Staff Development,8,22-24.
Kampa-Kokesch,S.,& Anderson,M.Z.(2001).Executive coaching:A comprehensive review of the literature.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,53(4),205-228.
Kenyon,M.,Young,F.,Mufti,G.J.,Pagliuca,A.,Lim,Z.,& Ream,E.(2015).Life coaching following haematopoietic stem cell transplantation:a mixed-method investigation of feasibility and acceptability.European Journal Of Cancer Care,24(4),531-541.
Ladegard,G,& Gjerde,S.(2014).Leadership coaching,leader role-efficacy,and trust in subordinates.A mixed methods study assessing leadership coaching as a leadership development tool.Leadersh Q,25,631-646.
Luthans,F.,& Peterson,S.J.(2003).360-degree feedback with systematic coaching:Empirical analysis suggests a winning combination.Human Resource Management,42,243-256.
MacKie,D.(2014).The effectiveness of strength-based executive coaching in enhancing full range leadership development:A controlled study.Consulting Psychology Journal:Practice and Research,66(2),118-137.
Madden,W.,Green,L.S.,& Grant,A.M.(2011).A pilot study evaluating strengths-based coaching for primary school students:Enhancing engagement and hope.International Coaching Psychology Review,7,71-83.
Mermelshtine,R.(2017).Parent-child learing interactions:A review of the literature on scaffolding.British Journal of Educational Psychology,87,241-254.
Miller,W.R.,& Rollnick,S.(2002).Motivational interviewing:Preparing people for change(2nd ed.).New York:Guilford Press.
Moen,F.,& Federici,R.A.(2012).The effect from external executive coaching.Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research & Practice,5(2),113-131.
Neenan,M.,& Palmer,S.(2001).Cognitive behavior coaching.Stress News,13(3),15-18.
O’Connor,S.,& Cavanagh,M.(2013).The coaching ripple effect:The effects of developmental coaching on wellbeing across organisational networks.Psychology of Well-Being:Theory,Research Practice,3,1-23.
Palmer,S.,& Whybrow,A.(2008).Handbook of coaching psychology:A guide for practitioners.Hove:Routledge.
Passmore,J.,& Brown,A.(2009).Coaching non-adult students for enhanced examination performance:a longitudinal study.Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research & Practice,2(1),54-64.
Pea,R.D.(2004).The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning,education,and human activity.The Journal of the Learning Sciences,13,423-451.
Peltier,B.(2001).The psychology of executive coaching:Theory and practice.Abingdon:Routledge.
Ratiu,L.,David,O.,& Baban,A.(2017).Developing managerial skills through coaching:Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral coaching program.Journal of Rational Emotive & Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,35,88-110.
Rogers,C.R.(1980).A way of being.Boston,MA:Houghton Mifflin.
Rogoff,B.(1990).Apprenticeship in thinking:Cognitive development in social context.New York:Oxford University Press.
Rollnick,S.,& Miller,W.R.(1995).What is motivational interviewing?Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy,23,325-334.
Seligman,M.,Rashid,T.,& Parks,A.C.(2006).Positive psychotherapy.American Psychologist,61(8),774-788.
Sklare,G.(2005).Brief counseling that works:A solution-focused approach for school counselors.Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.
Stelter,R.,& Law,H.(2010).Coaching—narrative-collaborative practice.International Coaching Psychology Review,5(2),152-164.
Stelter,R.(2014).A guide to third generation coaching:Narrative-collaborative theory and practice.New York:Springer.
Stober,D.R.,& Grant,A.M.(2006).Evidence based coaching:Putting best practices to work for your clients.New Jersey:Wiley and Sons.
Turnbull,J.(2009).Coaching for learning:A practical guide for encouraging learning.London:Continuum.
Wang,Q.(2013).Towards a systems model of coaching for learning:Empirical lessons from the UK secondary classroom context.International Coaching Psychology Review,8(1),35-51.
Wang,Q.(2016).Art-based narrative interviewing as a dual methodological process:A participatory research method and an approach to coaching in secondary education.International Coaching Psychology Review,11(1),39-56.
Wang,Q.(2018).Coaching psychology for learning:Facilitating growth in education.London:Routledge.
Wang,Q.,Li,H.,& Pang,W.(2016).From PBL tutoring to PBL coaching in undergraduate medical education:An interpretative phenomenological analysis study.Medical Education Online,21,1-13.
Wang,Q.,Li,H.,Pang,W.,Liang,S.,& Su,Y.(2016).Developing an integrated framework of problem-based learning and coaching psychology in undergraduate medical education:A participatory research.BMC Medical Education,16(2),1-14.
Wang,Q.,Wen,T.,& He,Y.(2018).Coaching psychology in Chinese vocational schools:What works and what doesn’t?In press.
Wheeler,S.D.(2004).The effectiveness of a community based life skills training program for traumatic brain injury.(Ph.D.),Virginia Commonwealth University.
Whitmore,J.(2009).Coaching for Performance(4th ed.).London:Nicholas Bearley.
Wilkes,S.,& Telfair,T.(2008).Leadership Coaching in Higher Education.Academic Leader,24,7-8.
Wood,D.,Bruner,J.S.,& Ross,G.(1976).The role of tutoring in problem solving.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,17(2),89-100.