儿童在不同卷入情境下基于资源价值的分配行为特点:内群体偏爱的作用
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摘要
为探究不同卷入情境下儿童基于资源价值的分配行为特点以及内群体偏爱在其中的作用,呈现给儿童两种实验情境:实验1,134名5～8岁儿童在第一方情境下与来自内、外群体的一名儿童分配不同价值的物品,结果发现7～8岁儿童公平分配比例与5～6岁儿童无显著差异;实验2,130名5～8岁儿童在第三方情境下给来自特定群体的两名儿童分配资源,结果发现7～8岁儿童公平分配比例显著高于5～6岁儿童。两个实验均发现儿童的分配行为表现出内群体偏爱, 5～6岁儿童比7～8岁儿童更明显。并且, 5～6岁女生比男生有更明显的内群体偏爱,但在7～8岁组无性别差异。此外,只有7～8岁儿童的公平分配行为表现出卷入情境上的差异,他们在第三方情境比第一方情境下更能做出公平分配,但5～6岁儿童的公平分配行为并无情境差异。综上可见,比起年幼儿童,年长儿童基于资源价值的公平行为发展得更好,并且在两种卷入情境下受内群体偏爱的影响均更小。
Developing fairness is an important task of children's moral development. Equality, including numerical equality and quality equality, is one of the distributive justice principles. So far, most previous studies focus on the number-based resource allocation. However, children often allocate resources of different quality in daily life, and previous studies find that resource quality plays an important role in allocation. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the development of children's quality-based resource allocation and the related factors. Moreover,according to the evidence from numerous researches about number-based resource allocation, children's allocation can be shaped by in-group favoritism that children allocate more resources to in-group members. Hence, whether the quality-based resource allocation can be influenced by in-group favoritism is worthy of attention. In addition,different involvement contexts(the first-party and third-party contexts), whether involving individual self-interest or not, can influence children's resource allocation. Given the above, this study focused on the role of in-group favoritism in children's quality-based resource allocation in the first-party and third-party contexts, as well as its age and gender differences.Two experiments were designed to understand above questions. Experiment 1 aimed to investigate children's quality-based resource allocation in the first-party context. 61 children aged 5- to 6-year-old and 73 children aged 7- to 8-year-old were recruited and were asked to pick out two favorite objects(high-quality resources) and two objects enjoyed least(low-quality resources) from nine different objects. Then, we instructed the children to allocate any two of the four objects to themselves and the other two to either one out-group(strangers from other school) or in-group(good friends from the same class) member. Thus, two conditions including Out-group condition and In-group condition were generated. It was considered as quality equality only if each person received one high-quality resource and one low-quality resource. As for the quality-based equal distributive behavior, the result showed that there was no age difference, furthermore, there was no significant difference between In-group condition and Out-group condition for the two age groups. As for the children who allocated unequally, the results indicated that 5- to 6-year-olds were more likely to show altruistic distributive behavior in the In-group condition compared with Out-group condition, and showed more self-regarding distributive behavior in the Out-group condition than In-group condition. Furthermore,5- to 6-year-old girls, rather than boys, were more likely to show altruistic distributive behavior in the In-group condition compared with Out-group condition.Experiment 2 was conducted in the third-party context to explore children's quality-based resource allocation in the context without self-interest involvement. 64 children aged 5- to 6-year-old and 66 children aged 7- to 8-year-old were recruited and asked to allocate any two of four objects to each of two members from either in-group or out-group, generating three conditions including Out-group/out-group condition, In-group/in-group condition and In-group/out-group condition. The results showed that, on average, compared with younger children, older children were more likely to allocate equally. Besides, both of the two age groups were less likely to allocate equally in the In-group/out-group condition than in the other two conditions, but 5- to 6-year-olds allocated less equally in the In-group/out-group condition than did 7- to 8-year-olds. Furthermore, for the younger children, girls rather than boys allocated less equally in the In-group/out-group condition than in the other two conditions. Comparing the results of different involvement contexts, we found that the proportion of 7- to 8-year-old children who allocated equally in the third-party context was significantly greater than that in the first-party context.In sum, 7- to 8-year-old children's quality-based resource allocation was more likely to be equal in the third-party context and showed less in-group favoritism in the two contexts than that of 5- to 6-year-old children.Furthermore, 5- to 6-year-old girls were more likely to be influenced by in-group favoritism. Besides, older children demonstrated higher level of equality in the third-party than in the first-party context. The implication of this study was that children's quality-based resource allocation could be influenced by multiple competing motives including equality, in-group favoritism and self-interest.
Developing fairness is an important task of children's moral development. Equality, including numerical equality and quality equality, is one of the distributive justice principles. So far, most previous studies focus on the number-based resource allocation. However, children often allocate resources of different quality in daily life, and previous studies find that resource quality plays an important role in allocation. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the development of children's quality-based resource allocation and the related factors. Moreover,according to the evidence from numerous researches about number-based resource allocation, children's allocation can be shaped by in-group favoritism that children allocate more resources to in-group members. Hence, whether the quality-based resource allocation can be influenced by in-group favoritism is worthy of attention. In addition,different involvement contexts(the first-party and third-party contexts), whether involving individual self-interest or not, can influence children's resource allocation. Given the above, this study focused on the role of in-group favoritism in children's quality-based resource allocation in the first-party and third-party contexts, as well as its age and gender differences.Two experiments were designed to understand above questions. Experiment 1 aimed to investigate children's quality-based resource allocation in the first-party context. 61 children aged 5- to 6-year-old and 73 children aged 7- to 8-year-old were recruited and were asked to pick out two favorite objects(high-quality resources) and two objects enjoyed least(low-quality resources) from nine different objects. Then, we instructed the children to allocate any two of the four objects to themselves and the other two to either one out-group(strangers from other school) or in-group(good friends from the same class) member. Thus, two conditions including Out-group condition and In-group condition were generated. It was considered as quality equality only if each person received one high-quality resource and one low-quality resource. As for the quality-based equal distributive behavior, the result showed that there was no age difference, furthermore, there was no significant difference between In-group condition and Out-group condition for the two age groups. As for the children who allocated unequally, the results indicated that 5- to 6-year-olds were more likely to show altruistic distributive behavior in the In-group condition compared with Out-group condition, and showed more self-regarding distributive behavior in the Out-group condition than In-group condition. Furthermore,5- to 6-year-old girls, rather than boys, were more likely to show altruistic distributive behavior in the In-group condition compared with Out-group condition.Experiment 2 was conducted in the third-party context to explore children's quality-based resource allocation in the context without self-interest involvement. 64 children aged 5- to 6-year-old and 66 children aged 7- to 8-year-old were recruited and asked to allocate any two of four objects to each of two members from either in-group or out-group, generating three conditions including Out-group/out-group condition, In-group/in-group condition and In-group/out-group condition. The results showed that, on average, compared with younger children, older children were more likely to allocate equally. Besides, both of the two age groups were less likely to allocate equally in the In-group/out-group condition than in the other two conditions, but 5- to 6-year-olds allocated less equally in the In-group/out-group condition than did 7- to 8-year-olds. Furthermore, for the younger children, girls rather than boys allocated less equally in the In-group/out-group condition than in the other two conditions. Comparing the results of different involvement contexts, we found that the proportion of 7- to 8-year-old children who allocated equally in the third-party context was significantly greater than that in the first-party context.In sum, 7- to 8-year-old children's quality-based resource allocation was more likely to be equal in the third-party context and showed less in-group favoritism in the two contexts than that of 5- to 6-year-old children.Furthermore, 5- to 6-year-old girls were more likely to be influenced by in-group favoritism. Besides, older children demonstrated higher level of equality in the third-party than in the first-party context. The implication of this study was that children's quality-based resource allocation could be influenced by multiple competing motives including equality, in-group favoritism and self-interest.
引文
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B?hm,R.,&Buttelmann,D.(2017).The impact of resource valence on children's other-regarding preferences.Developmental Psychology,53(9),1656-1665.
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Chen,T.,&Wu,Z.(2017).Children’s distributive justice:The role of Theory of Mind.Advances in Psychological Science,25(8),1299-1309.[陈童,伍珍.(2017).儿童的分配公平性:心理理论的作用.心理科学进展,25(8),1299-1309.]
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Cooley,S.,&Killen,M.(2015).Children's evaluations of resource allocation in the context of group norms.Developmental Psychology,51(4),554-563.
Davies,P.T.,&Lindsay,L.L.(2004).Interparental conflict and adolescent adjustment:Why does gender moderate early adolescent vulnerability?Journal of Family Psychology,18(1),160-170.
Deutsch,M.(1975).Equity,equality,and need:What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice?Journal of Social Issues,31(3),137-149.
Elenbaas,L.,&Killen,M.(2016).Children rectify inequalities for disadvantaged groups.Developmental Psychology,52(8),1318-1329.
Elenbaas,L.,Rizzo,M.T.,Cooley,S.,&Killen,M.(2016).Rectifying social inequalities in a resource allocation task.Cognition,155,176-187.
Fehr,E.,Bernhard,H.,&Rockenbach,B.(2008).Egalitarianism in young children.Nature,454(7208),1079-1083.
Gao,F.Y.,Qiu,X.L.,&Mo,S.L.(2015).The comprehension of distributive justice in children:Characteristics,mechanism and influencial factors,Psychological Research,8(5),40-48.[高凤阳,仇小莉,莫书亮.(2015).儿童对分配公平性的理解:发展特征、机制和影响因素.心理研究,8(5),40-48.]
House,B.R.,Henrich,J.,Brosnan,S.F.,&Silk,J.B.(2012).The ontogeny of human prosociality:Behavioral experiments with children aged 3 to 8.Evolution and Human Behavior,33(4),291-308.
Hsu,M.,Anen,C.D.,&Quartz,S.R.(2008).The right and the good:Distributive justice and neural encoding of equity and efficiency.Science,320(5879),1092-1095.
Jordan,J.J.,McAuliffe,K.,&Warneken,F.(2014).Development of in-group favoritism in children's third-party punishment of selfishness.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,111(35),12710-12715.
Kogut,T.(2012).Knowing what I should,doing what I want:From selfishness to inequity aversion in young children's sharing behavior.Journal of Economic Psychology,33(1),226-236.
Lam,C.B.,Solmeyer,A.R.,&McHale,S.M.(2012).Sibling relationships and empathy across the transition to adolescence.Journal of Youth and Adolescence,41(12),1657-1670.
Li,J.,Wang,W.,Yu,J.,&Zhu,L.Q.(2016).Young children's development of fairness preference.Frontiers in Psychology,7,1274.
Liang,F.C.,Wang,X.Y.,Tang,W.H.(2015).The development of children’s fair behavior in different distribution situations.Psychological Development and Education,31(6),648-653.[梁福成,王心怡,唐卫海.(2015).不同分配情境下儿童公平行为的发展.心理发展与教育,31(6),648-653.]
Liu,W.,Zhang,X.,Fan,L.(2016).Development of 3 to 5years old children’s altruistic punishment behavior under different perspectives.Studies in Early Childhood Education,(12),35-43.[刘文,张雪,范琳琳.(2016).不同利益情境下3~5岁幼儿利他惩罚行为的发展特点.学前教育研究,(12),35-43.]
Liu,W.,Zhang,X.,Zhang,Y.,&Yu,R.W.(2017).Fairness cognition-behavior gap in 4~8 year-old children:The role of social comparison.Acta Psychologica Sinica,49(12),1504-1512.[刘文,张雪,张玉,俞睿玮.(2017).4~8岁儿童公平认知与行为差距:社会比较的作用.心理学报,49(12),1504-1512.]
Liu,W.,Zhu,L.,&Wen,G.Q.(2014).Equity sensitivity of infants and young children under the allocation condition.Advances in Psychological Science,22(4),618-624.[刘文,朱琳,温国旗.(2014).分配情境下的婴幼儿公平敏感性.心理科学进展,22(4),618-624.]
Mao,N.N.(2007).The study on the development of 3-6-yearolds’understanding of economic concepts(Unpublished master’s thesis).East China Normal University.[毛尼娜.(2007).3-6岁儿童对经济学知识理解的发展研究(硕士论文).华东师范大学.]
McAuliffe,K.,&Dunham,Y.(2017).Fairness overrides group bias in children's second-party punishment.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,146(4),485-494.
McGillicuddy-De Lisi,A.V.,De Lisi,R.,&Van Gulik,K.(2008).The effects of grade level,context,and family type on male and female adolescents'distributive justice reasoning.Journal of Adolescence,31(1),107-124.
Monteiro,M.B.,de Franca,D.X.,&Rodrigues,R.(2009).The development of intergroup bias in childhood:How social norms can shape children's racial behaviours.International Journal of Psychology,44(1),29-39.
Moore,C.(2009).Fairness in children's resource allocation depends on the recipient.Psychological Science,20(8),944-948.
Mulvey,K.L.,Buchheister,K.,&McGrath,K.(2016).Evaluations of intergroup resource allocations:The role of theory of mind.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,142,203-211.
Mulvey,K.L.,Hitti,A.,Rutland,A.,Abrams,D.,&Killen,M.(2014).Context differences in children's ingroup preferences.Developmental Psychology,50(5),1507-1519.
Nie,R.,Zhou,N.,Zhang,Y.,&Fang,X.(2017).Associations among interpersonal relationships and high students’internalizing and externalizing problems:The mediating roles of self-esteem and gender differences.Psychological Development and Education,33(6),708-718.[聂瑞虹,周楠,张宇驰,方晓义.(2017).人际关系与高中生内外化问题的关系:自尊的中介及性别的调节作用.心理发展与教育,33(6),708-718.]
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