区域人力资本差异的形成机制研究
详细信息    本馆镜像全文|  推荐本文 |  |   获取CNKI官网全文
摘要
人力资本在中国区域间呈现出明显的非均衡性和空间集聚特征。人力资本差异反映在投资、积累、运行三个方面上,人力资本投资的多少是基础,没有投资就没有人力资本,也就不可能产生足够丰富的人力资本投入生产过程。其次,人力资本积累能力同样重要,高投资并不一定形成本地区的高人力资本积累。第三,人力资本运行水平的高低虽以投资高低以及积累丰富程度为基础,但其最终表现在运行水平上,进一步说,实际投入到生产运行中的人力资本的多少受制于一系列的正式制度、非正式制度及其实施机制。因此,本文对人力资本差异形成机制的分析从投资水平、积累水平、运行水平这几个层面上来反映。
     在研究方法上,本文综合采用了规范研究和实证研究,并结合定性分析展开定量分析,努力做到理论分析和实践应用的紧密结合。本文运用新制度经济学所包含的制度分析框架和理论分析工具,针对中国东、中、西部三种不同经济发展状况地区人力资本的内在特性和区域环境系统对人力资本运动的影响进行考察,深入剖析我国人力资本区域差异现状的形成机制,提出区域投资差异、积累能力差异(东西部人力资本流动的非对称性、经济活动的空间非均衡性对区域人力资本差异的作用、人力资本积累的自我强化机制)和运行水平差异(人力资本配置的制度差异)造成了中国人力资本的区域差异的观点,认为人力资本的内在运动特性是诱发人力资本由中西部地区向东部区域流动,延续和强化既有人力资本区域差异的内在机制。最后,提出促进东、中、西部地区经济发展的区域人力资本对策。
     本文共包括八章:
     第一章,导论。本章在对人力资本研究现状进行综述和分析的基础上,剖析现有人力资本研究中所存在的不足之处,进而提出了本研究的目的及其理论和现实意义,并对研究思路及研究方法进行介绍。
     第二章,人力资本存量的区域差异。在对已有人力资本存量测度方法分析的基础上,遵循全面性、资料的可获得性和可操作性的原则,在评价人力资本水平时,选取了反映人力资本存量的教育、研究与开发以及健康等方面的因素,测度了东部、中部、西部人力资本的存量,并进行了比较分析。
     第三章,区域人力资本投资水平的差异。由于人力资本是经过投资形成的,人力资本存量是人力资本投资的结果。因此,本章根据人力资本的形成途径,从正规教育、在职培训、健康保健、科研、迁移等方面来分析区域人力资本投资的非均衡状况。
     第四章,东西部人力资本流动的非对称性。人力资本作为一种特殊形态的资本,运动性是其内在要求,人力资本及其运动性特征是人力资本区域差异的内在动力基础。中西部投资形成的人力资本大量涌向东部,造成了中西部人力资本投资的损失。
     第五章,经济活动的空间非均衡性与区域人力资本差异的相互作用。经济活动的空间非均衡性决定了人力资本区域的非均衡性;与此同时,人力资本区域的非均衡性又导致了区域经济的非均衡发展。
     第六章,人力资本配置的制度差异。运用新制度经济学的分析框架和理论工具,将制度纳入人力资本形成的经济学分析,深入考察人力资本形成和积累中具体的正式规则、非正式约束以及它们的实施机制,进而解释各区域由于制度差异而导致的人力资本运行水平和开发层次上的广泛差异。
     第七章,区域人力资本积累的自我强化机制。人力资本东部区域集聚产生显著的集聚效应,人力资本的区域集聚为知识和信息的学习与交流带来速度与效率,降低了人力资本生产成本和交易成本,形成人力资本区域集聚的不断延续和强化机制,也加速了个体人力资本自身的积累。
     第八章,结论和对策。进一步探寻兼顾发展效率和区域公平的东西部人力资本补偿、合作路径:提高投入的配置效率和组织效率使稀缺的资源产出最大的人力资本;建设人力资本市场以降低人力资本区域迁移成本;注重发挥中西部人力资本资源配置和资源转换能力的制度创新机制;加快产业转移步伐,实现产业转移、人力资本转移“双转移”;加强政府宏观调控以引导人力资本区域合理迁移。
     本文的创新点在于:(1)提出集聚区域人力资本投资的成本优势。(2)提出制度非均衡导致的人力资本存量水平和开发层次上的差异。
Human capital among different regions present the characteristics of unbalance andspatial centralization. The level of one region's human capital are reflected in the threecorrelative aspects, that is investment, accumulation and operation. And the decisive factor isthe amount of human capital investment, for no investment no human capital. Andthen therewould be no enough human capital being put into production. At the same time, theaccumulating ability of human capital is still important. For no accumulation no humancapital investment. Thirdly, though the level of one region's human capital is based on theinvestment level and its corresponding accumulation level of human capital. They ultimatelyshows in the operating level of it, What's more, the actual amount put into operation andproduction is controlled by the institutional factors, such as a series of exclusive formalconstraints, informal constraints and their enforcement characteristicsSo this paper analysisthe formation mechanism of one region's human capital from it’sinvestment level,accumulation level and operation level.
     In this dissertation, we used some kinds of methods, just like normative and positivestudy, qualitative and quantitative analysis, theoretical analysis and practical application.Basdon the internal characteristics of human capital and the influence of regional environments onhuman capital movements, by means of the analytical framework and theoretical tools of newinstitutional economics, this dissertation deeply anatomized the mechanism of human capitalregional difference. The internal movement characteristics of human capital, regionaldifference of human capital investment and the non-equilibrium development of theinstitutional system inevitably result in more and more human capital moving into theaggregation region, by which a constantly extending and strengthening mechanism of humancapital regional aggregation is formed.
     The dissertation is consisted of eight chapters:
     Chapter one, Introduction. Bsed on the reviewing of the researching actuality of humancapital, this chapter analysised the shortcoming of it, and give the significance and the purpose of the thesis,the logical thoughts and the researching methods.
     Chapter two studies the regional difference of human capital storage. Based on theanalysis of the human capital measurement on this field, and according to the principle ofall-sideness, procurement and operaterability of material, in the evaluation of the level ofhuman capital, the paper selects the education, research, development and health as the factorsof human capital storage to measure the human capital storage of the East, the Central and theWest China and to make a certain comparation.
     Chapter three studies the regional difference of human capital investment. Theinvestment of human capital leads to the accumulation of human capital. So this chapteranalysis the unbalance of regional investment in human capital from five aspects named as theeducation, training, research, and health investment according to the formation route ofhuman capital investment.
     Chapter four is devoted to the study of the unbalance of human capital regionalmovements. As a special capital, human capital inherently needs movement.Thecharacteristics of human capital and its movement are the motivity basis of human capitalregional difference.
     Chapter five is devoted to the study of the interactions between the unbalance of humancapital regional difference and the difference of regional economy. The difference of regionalhuman capital is one of the most important factors to result in regional economic disparity.Regional economic development determines regional difference of human capital, and thelatter also has important effects on the former.
     Chapter six is devoted to the study of the institutional factors of human capital spatialallocation.By means of the analytical framework and theoretical tools of new institutionalism,this part anatomized the institutional factors of contributing regional difference of humancapital.A series of exclusive formal constraints, informal constraints and their enforcementcharacteristics impose an institutional discrimination against the west.
     Chapter seven is about the easter strengthening mechanism of human capital regionalaggregation.Human capital aggregation effects and the unhomogeneousness of zone spaceattracts more and more human capital moving into the east region,by which a constantlyextending and strengthening mechanism of human capital regional aggregation is formed.
     Chapter eight is about the conclusion and corresponding policies suggestions. The goal isfor further inquiring the effective way that reduces the regional differences of human capital.They are as follows: continuously exploring the methods of human capital payment and cooperation between the East and the West taking into account the efficiency and regionalequity; raising the efficiency of input allocation and organization in order to make the biggestoutput. constructing the human capital market and lower the cost of human capital migrationbetween different region; Paying more attention to the mechanisms of innovative system ofhuman capital resource allocation and resource conversion capabilities; Accelerating the paceof industrial transformation, achieving the "double shift", transfermation of industries andhuman capitals; Strengthen the government's macroeconomic regulation to guide reasonablemigration of the human capital.
     The innovation of this paper is to:(1)Proposing the gathering of regional human capitalinvestment cost advantage.(2)By means of the analytical framework and theoretical tools ofnew institutional economics, this dissertation deeply anatomized the mechanism of humancapital unbalance regional movements and aggregation.
引文
白雪梅.1998.中国区域经济发展的比较研究.北京:中国财政经济出版社:321-324
    北京大学课题组.1999.“教育规模扩展对短期经济增长作用研究”的基本结论.北京高等教育,11:19-20
    贝克尔.1993.人力资本.北京:北京大学出版社版:1
    蔡昉,王德文.2002.比较优势差异、变化及其对地区差距的影响.中国社会科学,5:41-56
    蔡昉,王德文.2003.作为市场化的人口流动——第五次全国人口普查数据分析.中国人口科学,5:11-19
    蔡昉.1997.劳动力流动、择业与自组织过程中的经济理性.中国社会科学,4:127-138
    蔡昉.2001.中国人口流动方式与途径(1990-1999).北京:社会科学文献出版社:1一11
    陈晓光.2005.人力资本向下兼容性及其对跨国收入水平核算的意义.经济研究,4:46一56
    崔玉平.1999.教育对经济增长贡献率的估算方法综述.清华大学教育研究,1:71-78
    戴维斯,诺斯.1994.制度创新的理论:描述、类推与说明.见:科斯、阿尔钦、诺斯等(主编).财产权利与制度变迁——产权学派与新制度经济学派译文集.刘守英等译.上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社:317-320
    邓翔.2002.经济趋同理论与中国地区经济差距.成都:西南财经大学出版社:68
    丁四保.2003.区域经济学.北京:高等教育出版社:85
    丁云祥,张文耀,吴克强.2000.陕西高等教育效益外溢与成本补偿问题探析.山西财经大学学报(高等教育版),3:11-13
    范剑勇.2008.产业集聚与中国地区差异研究.上海:格致出版社:9-11,31,268
    房朝君.2008.现阶段我国产业结构和就业结构特点分析.商场现代化,53(12):267-268
    冯子标.2000.人力资本运营论.北京:经济科学出版社:72
    高文香.2007.浅论区域文化对区域经济发展的影响.职业圈,10:16-17
    国家统计局.2003.“人均受教育年限”计算方法探讨.统计制度改革研究,5:1-3
    国家统计局课题组.2007.中国区域经济非均衡发展分析.统计研究,24(5):48-5
    国家统计局.2011.中国全面建设小康社会进程统计监测报告.
    http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjfx/fxbg/t20111219_402773172.htm [2011-12-19]
    韩冰雪,杜君民,张静一.2000.近代中国企业家与传统文化.石家庄经济学院学报,12:45-51
    何东霞,何一鸣.2006.文化与制度耦合:一个文献综述.学术研究,10:40-47
    黄乾.2000.人力资本产权的概念、结构与特征.江汉论坛,10:38-45
    侯风云.1998.人力资本形成中的政府投入主体考察.经济改革与发展,11:27-31
    候风云.1999.中国人力资本形成及现状.北京:经济科学出版社
    侯风云.2007.中国人力资本投入与城乡就业相关性研究.上海:上海人民出版社:309
    侯风云.2004.农村外出劳动力收益与人力资本状况相关性研究.财经研究,4:88--100
    侯亚非.2000.人口质量与经济增长方式.北京:中国经济出版社:49-65
    胡永远.2003.人力资本与经济增长:一个实证分析.经济科学,1:54-60
    胡永远.2005.现代人力资本投入理论研究新进展.经济学动态,1:72一75
    蒋晓华.2007.我国区域人力资本比较.中国国情国力,2:59-61
    景跃军,吴云龙.2003.制约西部经济增长的人力资本“瓶颈”及对策.人口学刊,6:17-20
    科学技术部.2011.全国及各地区科技进步统计监测结果.科技统计报告,439(1):1-4
    拉坦.1994.诱致性制度变迁理论.见:科斯、阿尔钦、诺斯等(主编),刘守英译.财产权利与制度变迁-产权学派与新制度学派译文集.上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社:329
    梁琦.2004.产业集聚论.北京:商务印书馆:145
    梁晓滨.1992.美国劳动力市场.北京:中国社会科学出版社:145
    林毅夫,蔡昉,李周.1998.中国经济转型时期的地区差距分析.经济研究,2:6
    林毅夫.1989.关于制度变迁的经济学理论:诱致性变迁与强制性变迁.见:盛洪.2003.现代制度经济学(下).北京:北京大学出版社:260
    刘汉民.2007.企业理论、公司治理与制度分析.上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社:69
    刘斌.2004.集聚竞争优势的经济分析.北京:中国发展出版社:105-110
    李丽辉.2007.技术进步对劳动力流动的效应研究.北京:经济科学出版社:1-224
    李斯特.1841.政治经济学的国民体系.陈万熙译.1961.北京:商务印书馆:124-126
    李建民.1998.人力资本通论.上海:三联书店:30-31
    李玲.2002.中国人力资本地区流动与配置状况分析.经济经纬,6:82-85
    李广科,李录堂.2009.人力资本区域集聚机制分析.华南理工大学学报(社会科学版),11(5):23-27
    李广科,李录堂.2010.基于利益表达的农民工行为失范的制度解释.电子科技大学学报(社会科学版),12(1):56-59
    陆铭,陈钊.2006.中国区域经济发展中的市场整合与工业集聚.上海:上海人民出版社:1-231
    陆铭.2007.劳动和人力资源经济学:经济体制与公共政策.上海:上海人民出版社:284-286
    陆铭,陈钊.1998.二元体制下的劳动力就业选择及其对经济效率的影响.上海经济研究,12:36-40
    陆铭.2003.为何改革没有提高国有企业的相对劳动生产率.经济学(季刊),2(4):833-856
    罗永泰,张威.2004.论人力资本聚集效应.科学管理研究,22(1):81-84
    吕光明.2002.我国沿海和内地区域经济发展阶段的比较与评价[硕士论文].大连:东北财经大学
    闵维方,王蓉.2006.中国教育与人力资源发展报告2005-2006.北京:北京大学出版社
    诺思.1990.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效.杭行译.2008.上海:格致出版社,上海三联书店,上海人民出版社:4,7,162
    毛军.2006.产业集聚与人力资本积累——以珠三角、长三角为例.北京师范大学学报(社会科学版),6:103-110
    迈克尔·波特.1990.国家竞争优势.李明轩,邱如美译.2002.北京:华夏出版社:74-75
    马歇尔.1890.经济学原理(上册).朱志泰、陈良璧译.2005.北京:商务印书馆:1,125,294
    牛冲槐,接民,张敏.2006.人才聚集效应及其评判.中国软科学,184(4):118-123
    潘晨光.2011.中国人才发展报告(2011).北京:社会科学文献出版社:1-400
    齐良书,赵俊超.2012.营养干预与贫困地区寄宿生人力资本发展.管理世界,221(2):52-61
    秦立建,蒋中一.2012.失地对中国农村居民健康风险的影响分析.中国人口科学,148(1):102-110
    覃成林,张华,张技辉.2011.中国区域发展不平衡的新趋势及成因——基于人口加权变异系数的测度及其空间和产业二重分解.中国工业经济,10:37-45
    青木昌彦.2001.比较制度分析.周黎安译.2001.上海:上海远东出版社:28
    钱雪亚,刘杰.2004.中国人力资本水平实证研究.统计研究,21(3):39-45
    舒尔茨.1960.论人力资本投入.吴珠华等.1990.北京:北京经济学院出版社:9-10,92
    舒尔茨.1982.对人进行投入:人口质量经济学.吴珠华.2002.北京:首部经济贸易大学出版社:40-41
    盛乐,姚先国.2002.对企业经济效率差异的理论分析.经济学研究,4:24-29
    苏东斌.2000.激励创造供给:高新技术产业中的人力资本.经济学动态,7:11-18
    藤田昌久,雅克一弗朗科斯·蒂斯.2002.集聚经济学.刘峰,张雁,陈海威译.2004.成都:西南财经大学出版社:513
    王玮,王培根.2002.浅析经济增长中的教育因素.交通高教研究,2:29-31
    王绍光,胡鞍钢.2000.中国不平衡发展的政治经济学.北京:中国计划出版社:257-289
    王金营.2004.制度变迁对人力资本和物质资本在经济增长中作用的影响.中国人口科学,4:11-19
    王金营.2001.人力资本与经济增长理论与实证.北京:中国财政经济出版社:5-6
    王桂新,黄颖钰.2005.中国省际人口迁移与东部地带的经济发展:1995-2000.人口研究,29(1):19-28.
    王利,储国强,许祖华.2002.“孔雀东南飞”——西部地区人才状况备忘录ttp://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2002-01/28/content_722034.htm.[2008-10-21]
    王志刚,龚六堂,陈玉宇.2006.地区间生产效率与全要素生产率增长率分解(1978-2003).中国社会科学,1:55
    瓦尔拉斯.1874.纯粹经济学要义.蔡受百译.1989.北京:商务印书馆:5.
    魏立萍.2001.人力资本与经济增长关系研究.[博士学位论文].厦门:厦门大学
    谢万华.1999.教育消费对我国经济增长的贡献研究.教育与经济,4:17-19
    吴能全,陈剑.2004.广东经济增长中的教育因素贡献分析.南方经济,10:54-56
    吴兵,王铮.2004.中国各省区人力资本测算研究.科研管理,25(4):60-65
    许彬,罗卫东.1999.人力资本增长模型与经济增长方式的转变.浙江大学学报,29(1):134-140
    徐璋勇.2002.对西部地区实现经济增长路径的实证分析.西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),32(3):16-19
    徐志平.2006.大连人力资本与经济增长实证研究.[硕士学位论文].大连:大连理工大学
    萧今.2004.发展经济中的人力资本.北京:北京师范大学出版社:78
    熊彼特.1912.经济发展理论.何畏译.2000.北京:商务印书馆:73-74
    向显湖.2005.当代管理会计新发展论人力资本效率.第五届会计与财务问题国际研讨会(7月9日-10日)
    亚当·斯密.1776.国民财富的性质和原因的研究.郭大力,王亚南译.2004.北京:商务印书馆:5
    姚益龙.2004.有关教育与经济增长理论的文献综述.学术研究,3:32-36
    闫淑敏,段兴民.2001.中国西部人力资本存量的比较分析.中国软科学,6:100-103
    萨伊.1803.政治经济学概论:财富的生产、分配和消费.陈福生,陈振骅译.1982.北京:商务印书馆:70
    约翰·伊特韦尔等主编.1987.新帕尔格雷夫经济学大辞典:2(E-J).陈岱孙译.1992.北京:经济科学出版社:236,736
    约翰·穆勒.1848.政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的若干应用.赵荣潜,桑炳彦,朱泱译.1991.北京:商务印书馆:9
    杨云彦.1999.劳动力流动、人力资本转移与区域政策.人口研究,23(5):9-15
    杨哲英,关宇.2004.比较制度经济学.北京:清华大学出版社:156
    俞路.2006.20世纪90年代中国迁移人口分布格局及其空间极化效应.[博士学位论文].上海:华东师范大学
    余惠利,李仕明.2005.教育、人力资本投入与经济增长——广东省和四川省的比较分析.价值工程,2:3-5
    中国网.2009.中国城市生活质量竞争力排名公布——港沪澳居前三.
    http://www.china.com.cn/news/2009-04/14/content_17601589.htm [2009-04-14]
    朱国宏.1994.人口质量的经济分析.上海:上海三联书店:27-28
    朱剑红.2008-12-19.国家统计局发布2007年中国全面建设小康社会进程统计监测报告.人民日报,9
    赵祥宇.2004.人力资本区域非均衡运动与集聚机制研究.[博士学位论文].北京:北京交通大学
    赵祥宇,林向军.2003.产业集聚区域人力资本积累.技术经济,6:16-17
    张曙光.1999.政府、农民和市场——山东惠民“大市场”要灭“小”市场与浙江义乌小市场变成大市场案例的比较和分析.中国制度变迁的案例研究(第二集).北京:中国财政经济出版社:56
    张佑林.2005.江浙区域经济发展中的文化因素分析.[博士学位论文].武汉:华中科技大学
    张维迎.1996.所有制、治理结构及委托—代理关系.经济研究,9:3-15
    张车伟.2003.营养、健康与效率.经济研究,1:3-12
    周其仁.1996.市场里的企业:一个人力资本与非人力资本的特别合约.经济研究,5:71-80
    张钦朋.2011.区域制度安排的非均衡性及其绩效牵扯.改革,9:66-70
    周亚,甘勇,李克强等.2004.中国人力资本的分布差异研究.教育与经济,2:17-20
    Adam S.1937.The wealth of nations.New york: The Modern Library:737
    Alfred M.1920.Principles of economics.London:229
    Anand, S&B rnighausen, Till.2004. Human Resources and Health Outcomes: Cross-CountryEconometric Study. Lancet,364:1603-1609
    Al-Kabir, A.1984. Effects of Community Factors on Infant and Child Mortality in Rural Bangladesh.World Fertility Survey Scientific Report,12:56
    Anand, S.&Ravallion, M.1993.Human Development in Poor Countries:On the Role of Private Incomesand Public Services.The Journal of Economic Perspectives,7(1):133-150
    Anand, S.&Kanbur, Ravi S.M.1991.Public Policy and Basic Needs Provision:in Dreze, J.P. and A. K.Sen,eds. The Political Economy of Hunger, Vol.3. Oxford: Clarendon Press:59-92
    Bidani, B.&Ravallion, M.1997. Decomposing Social Indicators Using Distributional Data.Journal ofEconometrics,77:125-139
    Dixit A K, Stiglitz J E.1977. Monopolistic competition and optimum product diversity.American EconomicReview,67:297-308
    Frankenberg, Elizabeth.1995.The Effects of Access to Health Care on Infant Mortality in Indonesia. HealthTransition Review,5:143-163
    Fan Cindy C.2005.Interprovincial Migration, Population Redistribution, and Regional Development inChina:1990and2000Census Comparisons.The Professional Geographer,57(2):295-311
    Fujita Masahisa.1988.A monopolistic competition model of spatial agglomeration: A differentiatedproducts approach.Regional Science and Urban Economics,18:87-124
    Flegg, A.T.1982. Inequality of Income, Illiteracy and Medical Care as Determinants of Infant
    Mortality in Underdeveloped Countries. Population Studies,36(3):441-458
    Gupta, Sanjeev,Verhoeven, Marijn, Tiongson, Erwin, R.2003. Public Spending on Health Care and thePoor.Health Economics,12:685-696
    Hall.1982.The importance of Lifetime Jobs in the U.S. Economy American Economic Review,72:716一724
    Hayek, F. A.1960.The Constitution of Liberty. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press:369
    Hayek, F. A.1967. Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics. London: Routledge&Keynan Pau:344,529
    Hayek, F. A.1973. Law, Legislation and Liberty: Rules and Order. Chicago: The University of ChicagoPress:209-210
    Jamison, Dean T, Lau, Lawrence, J.2003. Health’s Contribution to Economic Growth in an EnvironmentPartially Endogenous Technical Progress.DCPP working paper,10:1-20
    Johnson D G.2003. Provincial migration in China in the1990s. China Economic Review,14:22-31
    Krugman Paul.1991.Increasing returns and economic geography.Journal of Political Economy,99:483-499
    Kuznets Simon.1955.Economic Growth and Income Inequality.American Economic Review,45:1-28
    Liang Zai, White M J.1996. Internal Migration in China,1950-1988. Demography,33(3):375-384
    Lucas, Robert E, Jr.1988.On the Mechanics of Development Planning.Journal of Monetary Economics,22(1):3-42.
    Lowry, I.S.1966. Migration and Metropolitan Growth: Two Analytical Models. San Francisco: ChandlerPublishing.
    Mill John.1969.principles of political economy.New york:40,187.
    Otterstrom S M.2001. Trends in national and regional population concentration in the United States from1790to1990: from the frontier to the urban transformation. The Social Science Journal,38:393-407
    Puga D.1998.The rise and fall of regional inequalities.European Economic Review,43:303-334
    Romer, Paul M.1990.Endogenous Technological Change. Journal of Political Economy,98(5)part II:71-102.
    Rutstein, Shea, O.2000.Factors Associated with Trends in Infant and Child Mortality in DevelopingCountries during the1990s. Bulletin of the World Health Organization,78(10):1356-1270
    Sandiford, P. Morales, P. Gorter, A. Coyle, E. Smith, G.D.1991.Why do Child Mortality Rates Fall? AnAnalysis of the Nicaraguan Experience. American Journal of Public Health,81:30-37
    Solo R.M.1957. Technical Change and Aggregate Production Function.Review of Economic and Statics,39:312-320.
    Sen, Amartya.1998. Mortality as an Indicator of Economic Success and Failure. The EconomicJournal,108(1):1-25
    Shen Jianfa.1996. Internal Migration and Regional Population Dynamics in China. Progress in Planning,45:123-188
    Venables A J.1996. Equilibrium locations of vertically linked industries.International Economic Review,37:341-359
    Wang Limin.2002.Health Outcomes in Low-Income Countries and Policy Implications: EmpiricalFindings from Demographic and Health Surveys.World Bank Policy Research Working Paper,28:31
    Zhang K Honglin, Song Shunfeng.2003. Rural-urban migration and urbanization in China: Evidence fromtime-series and cross-section analyses. China Economic Review,14:386-400