摘要
从效率的角度看,教学可以理解为教学资源的投入与教学(成果)产出的关系,主要涉及教学资源,教学加工(主要依托课堂教学过程)和教学成果三个要素。关乎此,有人认为以优秀教师为标志的教学资源与学生的学业成绩是线性关系,自古有“名师出高徒”之说,这在不经意中忽略了课堂教学(教学加工过程)其它因素如学生积极性等的决定性价值。其结果是,人们非常渴望对优质教学资源的外延性占有,却忽略了教学方式变革、教学结构升级等为主体的教学资源的内涵性创生。
长期以来,我国基础教育实行以集体授课为主的同质化教学。这种教学假定学生的需要是一致的并藉此统一分配课堂教学资源以保证必要的教学效率。无可否认,在我国教育投入仍明显不足的情况下,同质化教学为我国教育发展与人才培养做出了重要贡献。不过也应看到,这种教学掩盖的课堂教学资源有限性与学生教学需要无限性之间的矛盾日益突出：忽视学生异质性；教学资源分配不公；弱生(学困生)不上进,优生难更优；学生之间多竞争少合作等多种失衡现象大有上升趋势。若长此以往,争夺优质教学资源的滚滚硝烟,会遮蔽人们的双眼以致看不到亟待改革的课堂教学弊端。
这种名为“同质”实为“失衡”的教学,已然成为教育发展与人才培养的巨大阻力。它所造成的课堂教学失衡是结构性的,小范围的修补工作难以真正解决问题。只有对同质化教学进行伤筋动骨的改造,在课堂中建设新结构实现教学内涵性均衡,才能为学生有差异的均衡发展提供保障。这种新结构自有多种形态,但本研究阐述的是异质化教学。
异质化教学是基础教育内涵性均衡发展的重要途径。它力图在课堂教学资源的充分利用与学生均衡发展之间建立统一或协调的格局,通过课堂教学资源的创生与合理、公平的分配来实现基础教育均衡发展的最终目的,即每个学生素质有差异的均衡发展。异质化教学的“均衡”不是绝对的平均,而是承认差异并合理利用差异,是“为了均衡(价值)”,“通过均衡(手段)”,并最终“实现均衡(结果)”。因此,异质化教学的主要诉求不是外延性教学资源投入,而是立足现有资源着力课堂教学结构的升级与创新,通过课堂的内涵性均衡实现现有资源利用效率的提升,为学生差异发展提供制度与资源保障。
可见,异质化教学与同质化教学的“效率观”大相径庭。它一方面内涵生成并均衡分配教学资源,另一方面构建促进学生差异发展的教学结构,在现有教学硬件难以发生根本性改变的情况下“最大”程度地解决课堂教学资源有限性与学生教学需要无限性之间的矛盾。
异质化教学是对同质化教学的部分否定与反动。因此,首先需要对同质化教学进行深刻的分析。同质化教学是指教师对全体学生从教学内容、教学方法、教学组织形式等方面施以没有区别的教学。在现象层面,它主要表现为“有教无异”(教师对学生无差别施教),“以教代学”(教师用自己的教授代替学生的学习),和“考试至上”(将考试成绩作为开展与评判教学质量的唯一标准)。而深藏在这现象之后的思想是本质主义。本质主义寻求同一性,预设教育是培养标准化的个体,追求确定的知识,并遵循工具理性主义的教学方式。它受到推崇多元、流变、异质性等概念的反本质主义思想的批判。在教育领域,反本质主义认为教育应满足人们的多元诉求,课程应更重视知识的建构,教学应是交往与反思的过程。这些教育议题,是异质化教学不可多得的文化养料。
在了解“为什么”之后,需要探讨异质化教学“是什么”的问题。“异质性”是异质化教学的重要概念,字面上虽可简单解释为“表示事物具有不同属性”,实则有丰富的内涵：它是事物的存在方式,代表着事物的发展与新事物的创造。以此概念为依托,异质化教学定义为,在整合课堂异质元素的基础上,教师指导学生开展自主学习,以实现课堂教学内涵性均衡的活动,表现出“以学立教”、“个群结合”、“多线并进”与“生态景观”四个特征。“以学立教”指教师将学生的自主学习活动作为自己开展教学活动的基础；“个群结合”指建立起学生个别学习、小组合作学习和全班集体学习三级教学结构；“多线并进”指鼓励学生根据自身实际情况把握教学进度；“生态景观”指教学现场保持活力、多元、和谐、井然的总体面貌。
异质化教学并非从天而降,而是站在前人的肩膀上。它对个性化教学、差异化教学、合作学习等进行了必要的借鉴,故与它们有诸多共同之处,体现出“家族相似性”。但在教学的出发点和目的两方面,它不无独特性,并藉之与其它几种教学理论共同组成了以学生个性发展为目的的教学“家族谱系”。它将实现教育过程公平作为自己的价值理念,并从必要性与可行性两方面证明了自身的工具有效性,是价值合理性与工具合理性的统一。
从异质化教学的本体探讨转入实践操作,就要回答“怎么做”的问题。在实践操作上,它主要关涉理论基础、实践材料、课堂模型三方面。理论基础包括复杂性思维与社会技术系统理论。复杂性思维作为指导思想,提醒异质化教学建构过程中应具有结构意识、整体视角以及把握动态性,发挥的是“世界观”的作用；社会技术系统理论作为一种实践理论,为异质化教学建构提供了操作框架与方法指导,具有“方法论”的性质。课堂中的所有元素都是教学建构的“材料”,但学生与教师主体是教学活动的中心,直接赋予教学以意义,最具复杂性,因此着重考察学生认知能力、智力风格、感情因素和教师管理风格与感情的异质性。异质化教学模型则从“元素整合”、“任务设计"、“教学实施”与“多元评价”四方面进行建构：元素整合与任务设计是教学的准备阶段,此阶段需要教师充分考虑各种教学元素的异质性以及它们的相互影响,藉此合理设计学生个人学习、小组学习和全班集体教学三种教学任务。教学实施是第二阶段,根据教学任务灵活组合个别学习、小组学习和全班集体教学三种组织形式,充分发挥学生的自主性,教师主要对学生自主与合作学习进行指导,并适当进行全班授课。第三阶段是反馈阶段,学生个体异质评价与学习小组同质评价相结合,将评价信息及时反馈到教师与学生手中,作为下次教学的重要参考。另外,异质化教学实践还需要遵循感情先行与循序渐进两条基本原则。
最后,制定四条实现异质化教学内涵性均衡的策略,解决“如何实现”的问题。第一,运用学生个人教学叙事实现学生个体均衡：让每个学生通过叙事增强对教学的反思,实现个人智力与感情、教学权力与教学行为、以及实践层面“学”与“教”活动的均衡。第二,建立理解型师生关系实现师生关系均衡：借助理解精神一方面涵养师生感情关系,改变同质化教学重“权”轻“情”的教师权威观,另一方面转变师生交往行为,赋权学生,两厢努力打破师生对抗困局,构建师生关系的理解性均衡。第三,构建学习共同体实现学生间关系均衡：在小组学习基础上以游戏的方式构建学习共同体,增强学生间的互帮互信,培养学生团队合作能力,以此化解学生间过分的竞争关系。第四,通过内涵性资源生成实现学生拥有教学资源的质性均衡：包括位置资源、教师资源与信息资源,既有新资源从无到有的创生,亦有旧资源从非优质到优质的转化。
综上所述,异质化教学争取通过新的教学结构在尽可能满足学生差异发展需要与充分利用已有课堂资源之间建立起平衡,虽然不能完全解决同质化教学的弊端,但希望从此起步,使我国课堂教学实践从同质化逐步向异质化转变。
Instruction can be understood as the efficiency of resources input and products output, which mainly concerning three elements:resources, processing and products. People may consider that quality resources such as excellent teachers directly cause outstanding students academic achievement. Therefore, the effect of processing of instruction has been ignored unintentional. As a result, people desire for occupying quality resources denotatively, but forgetting to gain them connotatively by instruction reform.
From a long time, China uses Homogeneous Instruction (HMI) as its main classroom instruction method in Basic Education. HMI assumes that students have the same demand from instruction, thus, distributes resources centralizedly to ensure necessary efficiency. Undeniably, HMI made a great contribution under the circumstances of poor national education resources input. But what should be seen is this instruction method can no longer cover the contradiction between the infiniteness needs of students and the limited resources of classroom. The unequilibrium phenomenon, such as ignoring the heterogeneity of students, unfair resources distribution, more competion and less collaboration among students, etc, become worse and worse. It will encourage people seizing more resources rather than upgrading instruction if we continue applying HMI.
This instruction, named "homogeneous" outside but actually "unequilibrium" inside, has became a huge obstacle of education development and personnel training. Partly fixing cannot solve its structural unequilibrium. Only can constructing a new instruction we guarantee students differentiated equilibrium development. There are many possible choices of new instruction constructing; we here discuss Heterogeneous Instruction (HTI).
HTI focuses on connotative equilibrium of Basic Education and tries to make a balance between fully applying resources and equilibrium development of students. Its ultimate goal is making every students differentiated equilibrium development. The notion of equilibrium in HTI not means absolute average, but admitting and applying difference. Equilibrium is the value, method and outcome of HTI. Thus, HTI not asks for denotative resources input, but steps on current condition and focuses on instruction restructure.
It can clearly be seen that HTI and HMI hold quite different view of efficiency. HMI encourage resources competition and ignores students'difference. On the contrary, HTI creates resources connotatively as well as constructs a differential development instruction structure. By doing so, HTI settles the contradiction between the infiniteness of students needs and the limit of classroom resources as could as possible.
To understand HTI, we need understand HMI profoundly first. HMI means teacher teaches all the class with undistinguished content, method and form. It has three main characters which are uniform teaching, recitation and test first. In the deep, HMI have been supported by essentialism, which assumes the purpose of education is creating standard individual, certainty is the core of knowledge and teaching should follow by Instrumental rationality. Anti-essentialism cuts the root of Essentialism and nourishes HTI. Its main education agendas are education should fulfill multiple demands of students, curriculum should pay more attention on knowledge construction and instruction is the process of interaction and reflection.
Heterogeneity can simply interpret to "the different characters of things" on the surface. However, it means being, developing and creating in the deep. By supporting of these meanings, the notion of HTI is on the base of heterogeneous elements integrating, students learn autonomously under the guide of teacher to achieve the connotative equilibrium of instruction. Autonomous learning, multiple forms, personal pace and ecological view are four main characters of HTI. HTI learns form Differentiating Instruction, Individualized Instruction and Cooperative Learning. Therefore, They have a lot in common and represent family similarity as well as a constellation of different development of students. HTI holds educational process fairness as its value rationality and proves its own effectiveness form instrument rationality.
Complexity thinking and Social-technical system are two theory foundations for HTI constructing. Complexity thinking remains that HTI constructing needs structural, integrated and dynamic awareness. And Social-technical system explains the method of constructing HTI in the practical field. All the elements in the classroom are HTI constructing materials, but the subject of student and teacher are most heterogeneous and complex. Thus, analyzing the heterogeneity of cognitive capabilities, intelligence styles and affection of students and managing styles, affection of teacher are necessary. The HTI model includes four parts:elements integrating, task designing, instruction implementing and multiple evaluating. Besides, HTI practice need follow affection first and step-by-step two basic principles.
HTI applies four strategies to achieve connotative equilibrium. First, use student personal narrative to contribute student personal equilibrium. Second, make understanding between students and teachers to balance student-teacher relationship. Third, foster learning community to avoid over competition and increase cooperation among students. Last but not least, create new resources to make every student gain resources qualitative equal.
To sum up, HTI built a new structure of instruction to make a balance between fulfilling different demands of student and applying current limited classroom resources. It cannot solve all the defects of HMI, but hopefully, it is starting the step to the ideal instruction.
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5后现代课程专家威廉·多尔用新4R代替泰勒的课程编制原理：丰富性(richness)指“课程的深度、意义的层次、多种可能性或多重解释”；回归性(recursion)指“一个人通过与环境、与他人、与文化的反思性相互作用形成自我感的方式”；关联性(relation)包括教育关联与文化关联,教育关联指课程中的观念、文本、教师、学生、媒体等诸多因素互动而组成的庞大的网络,文化关联指课程之外形成的课程的 母体在文化上的各种联接；严密性(rigor)与不确定性相连,一指有目的地寻求不同的变通方案、关联和联接,二指有意识地努力寻找我们或他人潜在的假设,并在这些假设中展开对话。详见小威廉姆E.多尔,后现代课程观[M]。
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2王理平.差异与绵延——柏格森哲学及其当代命运[M].北京：人民出版社,2007：348.
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1徐长福.走向实践智慧——探寻实践哲学的新进路[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：44.
2这里沿用徐长福教授的解释：“平常,我们把属性分为普遍性、特殊性、个别性或共性(一般)、个性(个别),这是很成问题的。‘N性’之为‘性’,只能是普遍的,而不能是个别的,‘个别性’或‘个性’这个词就是矛盾的(当然,我不是说这个词不能用)……就此而言,属性的普遍性意味着任何一种属性都可以用来陈述两个及以上的个别事物,属性之间的区别不在于哪个是普遍性,哪个是特殊性,哪个是个别性,而在于它们的普遍性程度各不相同”。详见徐长福.走向实践智慧——探寻实践哲学的新进路[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：44.
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1学者也将其称为“偏见”、“成见”、“前理解”等。
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2 Geels, F. W. (2005). Technological Transitions and System Innovations:A Co-Evolutionary and Socio-Technical Analysis. Northampton:Edward Elgar, p.10.
3 Cherns, A. (1976). The principles of sociotechnical design. Human Relations,29(8),783-792.; Cherns, A. (1987). The principles of sociotechnical design revisited. Human Relations,40(3),153-161.
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4 Rose, D.H.& Meyer, A.(2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age. Alexandria. VA:ASCD.
5 Barringer, M-D., Pohlman, C., Robinson, M. (2010). Schools for All Kinds of Minds:Boosting Student Success by Embracing Learning Variation. San Franciso, CA:Jossey-Bass, p.21.
1 Barringer, M-D., Pohlman, C., Robinson, M. (2010). Schools for All Kinds of Minds:Boosting Student Success by Embracing Learning Variation. San Franciso, CA:Jossey-Bass, pp.19-20.
2 Barringer, M-D., Pohlman, C., Robinson, M. (2010). Schools for All Kinds of Minds:Boosting Student Success by Embracing Learning Variation. San Franciso, CA:Jossey-Bass, p.20.
3 Barringer, M-D., Pohlman, C., Robinson, M. (2010). Schools for All Kinds of Minds:Boosting Student Success by Embracing Learning Variation. San Franciso, CA:Jossey-Bass, p.20.
1 See, Luria, A.R. (1973). The Working Brain:An Introduction to Neuropsychology(B. Haigh, Trans.)-New York: Basic Books.
2 Barringer, M-D., Pohlman, C., Robinson, M. (2010). Schools for All Kinds of Minds:Boosting Student Success by Embracing Learning Variation. San Franciso, CA:Jossey-Bass, p.57.
1 Armstrong, S. J. (1999). Cognitive style and dyadic interaction:A study of supervisors and subordinates engaged in working relationships. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Leeds, UK,转引自张丽芳,[美]斯滕伯格.智力风格的本质[M].何云峰等译.上海：上海人民出版社,2010：5.
2张丽芳,[美]斯滕伯格.智力风格的本质[M].何云峰等译.上海：上海人民出版社,2010：3.
3权威性：“被选择的模型必须是风格文献中被公认为有影响的模型”；经验性：“模型所定义的风格理论必须是已经被操作化的,从而具有经验性的根据”；独立性：“模型所定义的风格理论必须被检验为至少跟其他某一种风格理论有实质性的不同”。详见张丽芳,[美]斯滕伯格.智力风格的本质[M].何云峰等译.上海：上海人民出版社,2010：129.
4张丽芳,[美]斯滕伯格.智力风格的本质[M].何云峰等译.上海：上海人民出版社,2010：129-130.
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1斯滕伯格将心理自我管理比喻为“政府”,管理功能包含“立法型”、“执行型”、“司法型”；管理形式包括“专制型”、“等级型”、“寡头型”和“无政府主义型”；管理水平包括“局部型”和“整体型”；管理范围分为“内倾型”和“外倾型”；管理倾向则已有“自由型”和“保守型”。详见张丽芳,[美]斯滕伯格.智力风格的本质[M].何云峰等译.上海：上海人民出版社,2010：99-100.
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1 Kozek, B. (1985). Motives and motivational styles in education, in Entwistle, N. J.(ed.). New Directions in Educational Psychology- Learning and Teaching, Falmer Press.
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4瑞典哥登堡大学的马顿(Marton)将学习方式分为“深层学习方式”、“浅层学习方式”和“策略学习方式”三种。深层学习方式的特征是：以理解为目的,与内容大量互动,将新观点与已有知识相联系,将概念与日常经验相联系,将证据与结论相联系,检验论点的逻辑。浅层学习方式的特征是：以完成任务为目的,记忆评价所需信息,将学习任务视为外来负担,不反思学习的目的和策略,不整合分离的元素,无法从例子中总结原理。策略学习方式则包括：以获得更高学习等级为目的,用已有考试来预测题目,对计划的变更保持警觉,以获得最好效果为目的来分配时间和努力,确认学习的环境和材料是最合适的。详见Marton, F., Hounsell, D.J. and Entwistle, N.J.(1984) The Experience of Learning. Edinburgh:Scottish Academic Press.
5转引自Entwistle, N.(1987). Understanding Classroom Learning. London:Hodder and Stoughton, p.69.
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1 Shindler, J. (2010). Transformative Classroom Management:Positive Strategies to Engage All Students and Promote a Ssychology of Success. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, pp.17-21.
2贿赂是指通过没有教育价值的事物诱使学生学习,例如玩具。
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1 Marzano, R. J. (1992). A Different Kind of Classsroom:Teaching with Dimensions of Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, p.157.
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