摘要
未来取向(future orientation)是自我发展的一个重要方面,是一种指向未来的心理结构,对个体当前的认知活动具有重要的动力引导作用,并且促使个体当前的行为指向和服务于未来的目标(Nurmi, 1991)。青少年未来取向的积极发展不仅有利于其当前的心理社会适应,对其以后的发展也具有重要的影响作用(McCabe & Barnett, 2000; Schoon & Parsons, 2002; Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Soenens, & Matos, 2005)。未来取向是一个多阶段、多维度的心理过程,主要包括动机、规划和评价三个过程,其中动机过程是指个体对未来建构的目标和产生的担忧,规划过程是指个体计划怎样去实现未来目标,评价过程是指个体对实现未来目标的预期、重要性和影响因素的评估及其产生的情绪体验(Nurmi, 1991)。
近年来受到发展情境论思想的影响,研究者对多个变量之间具有的动态交互作用以及个体在发展过程中具有的变化性、多样性特点的关注日益增加。以往对青少年未来取向发展特点的研究主要考察的是未来取向的动机过程,很少有研究系统地考察未来取向三个过程的发展特点。同时,已有对青少年未来取向与其学业适应、情绪适应之间关系的研究主要基于横断数据,且很少有研究考察未来取向与学业适应和情绪适应之间具有的整合性、多向性交互作用。本论文在梳理未来取向相关理论与实证研究的基础上,采用追踪设计,结合以变量为中心和以个体为中心的分析方法,对青少年未来取向的发展特点及其与学业适应、情绪适应之间的关系模式进行了考察,从动态发展的角度建构青少年未来取向与学业适应和情绪适应的关系模型。
本论文以我国当前社会文化背景下的青少年为被试,采用追踪设计进行了三项研究、六项子研究。研究1考察了青少年未来取向的发展特点。其中研究1-a以变量为中心的分析方法考察了青少年未来取向的发展特点;研究1-b以个体为中心的分析方法考察了青少年未来取向具有的不同亚类别。两个子研究均以来自山东省5所初中和4所普通高中的1103名青少年为被试,采用青少年未来取向问卷对这些青少年进行了调查。未来取向问卷的测查内容主要包括两部分:一是青少年提及的对未来的希望和担忧,二是青少年对未来教育、职业和家庭领域发展的探索、投入以及对实现相应领域目标的内归因、外归因、情感体验、积极预期和个人价值。研究发现:
(1)随年龄增长,男生对未来的受教育、工作和人际关系的希望减少,女生对未来的受教育和个人婚姻家庭的担忧增多;初中生对近期学业适应、工作和父母家人安康的希望和担忧减少,高中生的休闲希望和对个人婚姻家庭的担忧增多;城市青少年对近期学业适应和父母家人安康的希望与担忧以及对未来的受教育希望减少。
(2)随年龄增长,总体上青少年报告的未来受教育、工作和个人婚姻家庭希望和担忧实现的时间跨度缩短,但休闲希望实现的时间跨度延长。
(3)随年龄增长,城市女生对未来教育领域的积极情感和农村女生对未来职业领域的个人价值感下降,男生对未来家庭领域目标实现的内归因倾向增加;高中生对未来教育领域的探索水平提高,对未来教育、职业和家庭领域目标实现的外归因倾向增加;农村青少年对未来教育领域的投入和内归因倾向增加,城市青少年对未来职业和家庭领域目标实现的外归因倾向增加。
(4)青少年对未来教育、职业和家庭领域的规划和评价具有不同亚类别;青少年归属于不同的未来教育、职业和家庭规划-评价亚类别具有稳定性和变化性;青少年归属于未来规划和评价的不同类别以及在类别之间的稳定性和变化性由于性别、城乡和年级的不同而存在差异。
研究2与研究1的被试相同,考察了青少年的未来取向与学业适应、情绪适应之间的动态交互关系,采用青少年自我报告问卷,包括青少年未来取向问卷、学业价值感、自感学业成绩、学校考试成绩、教育效用问卷、流调中心用抑郁量表、状态-特质焦虑问卷对这些青少年进行了调查,其中未来取向问卷测查的内容同研究1;学业适应的测查内容包括:学业价值感、自感学业成绩、学校考试成绩和教育效用;情绪适应的测查内容包括:抑郁和状态-特质焦虑卷。研究2共包括三个子研究:研究2-a以交叉滞后分析方法考察了青少年未来取向与学业适应之间的纵向关系;研究2-b以交叉滞后分析方法考察了青少年未来取向与情绪适应之间的纵向关系;研究2-c采用结构方程模型考察了青少年未来取向与学业适应和情绪适应的整合性关系。结果表明:
(1)青少年提及的未来受教育希望和担忧数量与其学业价值感、自感学业成绩和客观学业成绩之间可以相互促进;提及了工作希望和担忧的青少年的自感学业成绩高于没有提及工作希望和担忧的青少年,但提及较多工作担忧的青少年的客观学业成绩低于提及较少工作担忧的青少年;青少年提及个人婚姻/家庭希望会降低他们的学业价值感,但有助于提高客观学业成绩;青少年有较高的学业价值感、自感学业成绩和客观学业成绩,他们对未来教育、职业和家庭领域提及的希望和担忧实现的时间跨度也较长。
(2)青少年报告较多的未来受教育希望负向预测他们的抑郁、状态焦虑和特质焦虑水平;青少年未来受教育和工作担忧与状态焦虑和特质焦虑可以相互正向预测;青少年报告的未来受教育希望实现的时间跨度与抑郁和焦虑可以相互负向预测。
(3)对教育领域的投入和学业价值感、对教育领域的积极预期和自感学业成绩具有相互促进作用;对教育领域的投入可以提高自感学业成绩;自感学业成绩和学业价值感可以增强对教育领域的个人价值感和积极情感体验;客观学业成绩的提高对学业价值感和对教育领域的投入、个人价值、积极预期和情感体验具有促进作用;对实现教育目标进行内归因的趋势越明显,越有助于提高学业价值感、自感学业成绩和客观学业成绩。
(4)对职业领域的投入、内归因和积极预期间接通过教育效用提高自感学业成绩和客观学业成绩;自感学业成绩间接通过教育效用增强对职业领域的内归因和个人价值感,并直接增强对职业领域的积极预期和情感体验。
(5)在短时间内,抑郁和状态焦虑对学业价值感和自感学业成绩有消极影响作用,但状态焦虑可以提高客观学业成绩;对教育和职业领域的投入与抑郁有相互消极影响作用;对教育和职业领域的积极情感体验与抑郁和特质焦虑具有相互负向预测作用;对教育和职业目标的内归因可以降低抑郁水平,对教育和职业目标的外归因与抑郁和焦虑之间具有相互促进作用。
研究3与研究1的被试相同,在研究1-b的基础上进一步考察了青少年归属于不同未来取向亚类别与其学业适应、情绪适应的关系,使用的问卷包括青少年未来取向问卷、自感学业成绩、学校考试成绩、流调中心用抑郁量表和状态-特质焦虑问卷。结果表明:
(1)青少年归属于未来教育和职业领域的规划和评价亚类别以及亚类别的变化类型从规划和评价水平上分析,与其自感学业成绩和客观学业成绩之间具有相互正向预测作用;
(2)青少年归属于未来教育和职业领域的规划和评价亚类别以及亚类别的变化类型从规划和评价水平上分析,与其抑郁、状态焦虑和特质焦虑之间具有相互负向预测作用;
(3)归属于从家庭领域的较高规划-评价组过渡到中等偏高规划-评价组的过渡类别中的青少年,他们的抑郁得分显著高于归属于从较高规划-评价组过渡到高规划-评价组和从较低规划-评价组过渡到高规划-评价组的过渡类别中的青少年。
本研究得出以下主要结论:
1.青少年未来取向随年龄的增长表现出不同的发展特点;
2.青少年的未来规划和评价表现为不同的亚类别,且既有稳定性也有变化性;
3.青少年的未来取向与学业适应、情绪适应存在动态的多元交互影响;
4.青少年归属于不同的未来规划-评价亚类别从规划-评价水平上分析,与其学业适应可以相互正向预测,与其抑郁和焦虑可以相互负向预测。
本论文采用追踪设计,将以变量为中心和以个体为中心的分析方法相结合,考察了青少年未来取向的发展特点及其与学业适应、情绪适应之间的关系。论文获得的重要结果和新的发现,在一定程度上拓展和推进了中国青少年未来取向的研究,对指导青少年的人生规划和积极发展提供了重要的实证依据。
Future orientation is an important aspect of self-development, a psychological structure pointing to the future, which plays a guiding role in of the current cognitive activity of individuals, and makes the current cognitive activity of individuals point and service the future goals (Nurmi, 1991). The positive development of adolescent future orientation is not only beneficial to deal with current stressful events and risk behaviors, not only has an important influence on their future development (McCabe & Barnett, 2000; Schoon & Parsons, 2002; Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Soenens, & Matos, 2005). Future orientation is a multi-stage and multi-dimension psychological process which consisting of setting goals, planning their actualization and evaluating their realizability (Nurmi, 1991).
Recently, influenced by the notions of developmental contextualism, researchers focus increasingly on issues about the dynamical interactions among multiple variables, and about change and individual difference in personal development. In the last three decades, adolescents’future orientation has received a great deal of attention among developmental psychologists. However, an overwhelming majority of the research in this area tested the developmental characteristics of motivation process of future orientation, and was a lack of attention to planning and evaluation processes of future orientation. There were few of researches testing the integrated model among future orientation, academic and emotional adjustments, especially, without enough results from longitudinal perspective. In present thesis, firstly, a brief introduction was made on the conception and function of future orientation, especially its importance on adolescent’s current adjustment and later positive development. Then a comprehensive review was conducted with regard to the theoretical claims and the important empirical findings. A further analysis was executed focusing on the limitations of previous researches. On the basis of these analyses, three studies were designed to explore the developmental characteristics of adolescent’s future orientation, and the integrated multi-dimensional interactions among future orientation, academic and emotional adjustments using the variable-centered and person-centered analyses in the longitudinal data.
Study 1 was conducted to focus on developmental characteristics of adolescent’s future orientation, and included two sub-studies. Study 1-a used the variable-centered method including marginal homogeneity test and repeated ANOVA to analyze the developmental characteristics of adolescent’s future orientation, and Study 1-b used the person-centered method (Latent Transition Analysis) to explore the sub-classes of future orientation in adolescent group. 1103 Chinese adolescents from five junior high schools and four senior high schools in Jinan City and Yantai area, Shandong Province, were employed to complete the questionnaires. The Chinese version of Future Orientation Questionnaire was administered by self-reported manner. The indicators of future orientation included two parts, and the first part tested the adolescents’hopes and fears for future, and the second parts tested the planning (exploration and commitment) and evaluating (internal and external attributions, feeling, positive expectation and personal value) to future education, occupation and family domains. The main findings were as follows:
(1) With the growth of adolescents’age, boys reported less hopes for future education, occupation and interpersonal relationship, and girls reported more hopes for future education and fears for future family; adolescents in junior middle school reported less hopes and fears for academic adjustment and future occupation and parents’health and well-being, and adolescents in high middle school reported more leisure hopes and future family fears; urban adolescents reported less hopes for future education and fears for academic adjustment and parents’health and well-being.
(2) With the growth of adolescents’age, adolescents’reported shorter temporal extensions for realizing hopes and fears for future education, occupation and family, but reported longer temporal extension for realizing leisure hope.
(3) With the growth of adolescents’age, urban girls decreased their positive feeling for future education, and rural girls decreased their personal value for future occupation; boys reported higher internal attribution for future family; adolescents in high middle school reported more exploration for future education, and higher external attributions for future education, occupation and family; rural adolescents reported more commitment and internal attribution for future education, and urban adolescents reported higher external attribution for future occupation and family. (4) There were different classes of future orientation in adolescent group for education, occupation and family domains. Some adolescents were classified into a subclass of future orientation stably in two time points, but some adolescents were classified into different subclasses of future orientation in two time points.
Study 2 was to investigate the multi-dimensional interactions among adolescents’future orientation, academic and emotional adjustments. The sample of subjects was same with Study 1. Seven self-reported questionnaires were administered, including the Chinese version of Future Orientation Questionnaire, Academic Value Scale, Self-perceived Academic Performance, School Record Performance, Education Instrumentality Scale, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The indicators of academic and emotional adjustment factors included academic value (AV), self-perceived and school record performances (SPP, SRP), depression, state anxiety (S-anxiety) and trait anxiety (T-anxiety). Three sub-studies were designed in Study 2. Study 2-a was designed to explore the cross-lagged interactional relationships between future orientation and academic value, self-perceived performance and school record performance, separately. Study 2-b was designed to test the cross-lagged interactional relationships between future orientation and depression, state anxiety and trait anxiety, separately. Statistical methods in Study 2-a and 2-b included ANOVA, MLR (multinomial logistic regression), and HLR (hierarchical linear regression). Finally, Study 2-c was designed to construct the integrated models among future orientation, academic and emotional adjustment variables. SEM (structured equation model) was used in the third part of Study 2. The main findings were as follows:
(1) The cross-lagged analyses showed significant positive interactions between hope and fear numbers for future education and AV, SPP, SRP, separately. Adolescents who reported hope and fear for future occupation showed higher SPP than those without hope and fear for future occupation, but adolescents who reported more fears for future occupation had lower SRP than those who reported less fears. Adolescents who reported future family hope had lower AV, but had higher SRP. Adolescents who had higher AV, SPP and SRP reported longer temporal extensions for realizing hopes and fears for future education, occupation and family domain.
(2) Adolescents who reported more hopes for future education had lower level of depression, S-anxiety and T-anxiety. The number of fear for future education and occupation and anxiety could mutually positively predict each other. The temporal extension of realizing hope for future education and depression, anxiety could mutually negatively predict each other.
(3) Commitment for future education and AV could promote each other, and positive expectation for future education and SPP could promote each other. Commitment for future education could enhance SPP. SPP and AV could promote personal value and positive expectation for future education. SRP could enhance AV and commitment, personal value, positive expectation and feeling for future education. Higher level of internal attribution for future education predicted increasing AV, SPP and SRP.
(4) Commitment, internal attribution and positive expectation for future occupation could indirectly enhance SPP and SRP through perceived educational instrumentality. SPP could indirectly enhance internal attribution and personal value for future occupation through perceived educational instrumentality, and directly promote positive expectation and feeling for future occupation.
(5) In relatively short period of time, depression and S-anxiety negatively predicted AV and SPP, but S-anxiety could enhance SRP; commitment for future education and occupation and depression had negative interactions; positive feeling for future education and occupation and depression, as well as T-anxiety could mutually negatively predicted each other; internal attribution for future education and occupation could negatively predicted depression, but external attribution for future education and occupation and depression, as well anxiety could mutually promote each other.
Study 3 was to explore the relations between adolescents’subclasses of future orientation and their academic and emotional adjustments based on the results of Study 1-b. The sample of subjects was same with Study 1. Statistical methods in the Study 3 included ANOVA, MANOVA, and MLR. Measures including the Chinese version of Future Orientation Questionnaire, Self-perceived Academic Performance, School Record Performance, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory used in Study 3 were the same with Study 1. The main findings were as follows:
(1) Adolescents were classified into planning-evaluating sub-classes and transitional types between these sub-classes for future education and occupation had mutually positive predictions with adolescents’SPP and SRP.
(2) Adolescents were classified into planning-evaluating sub-classes and transitional types between these sub-classes for future education and occupation had mutually negative predictions with adolescents’depression and anxiety.
(3) Adolescents who were classified into transitional type from more higher planning-evaluating subclass to moderately higher planning-evaluating subclass had higher score of depression than that of those who were classified into transitional types from more higher planning-evaluating subclass to the highest planning-evaluating subclass and from more lower planning-evaluating subclass to the highest planning-evaluating subclass.
The general conclusions were as follows: 1. adolescents’future orientation showed characteristics of change with age growth; 2. adolescents could to be classified to different sub-classes of future orientation; 3. there were multi-dimensional dynamic interactions among adolescents’future orientation and academic and emotional adjustments; 4. adolescents who were classified into different sub-classes of future orientation varied between different levels of academic and emotional adjustments.
This dissertation project was the first longitudinal design to explore the developmental characteristics of adolescent’s future orientation, and the integrated multi-dimensional interactions among future orientation, academic and emotional adjustments among contemporary Chinese adolescents. The findings and conclusions that drew on the dissertation project played an important role on the constructing dynamic developmental models of Adolescent’s future orientation and guiding the positive development of adolescents.
引文
Allison, B. N., & Schultz, J. B. (2001). Interpersonal identity formation during early adolescence. Adolescence, 36, 509-523.
Aloise-Young, P. A., Hennigan, K. M., & Leong, C. W. (2001). Possible selves and negative health behaviors during early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 158–181.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.
Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (1999). Social predictors of changes in students’achievement goal orientations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 21–37
Archer, J. (1994). Achievement goals as a measure of motivation in university students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 430-446.
Armstrong, P., & Crombie, G. (2000). Compromises in adolescents’occupational aspirations and expectations from Grades 8 to 10. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(1), 82–98.
Aspinwall, L. G. (2005). The Psychology of Future-Oriented Thinking: From Achievement to Proactive Coping, Adaptation, and Aging. Motivation and Emotion, 29(4), 203-235.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bar, M. (2009). The proactive brain: memory for predictions. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 364, 1235-1243.
Beal, S. J., & Crockett, L. J. (2010). Adolescents’Occupational and Educational Aspirations and Expectations: Links to High School Activities and Adult Educational Attainment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 258–265.
Bergman, L. R., Cairns, R. B., Nilsson, L., & Nystedt, L. (2000). Developmental science and the holistic approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Betz, N. E., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1995). Career assessment and intervention with racial and ethnic minorities. In F. T. L. Leong (Ed.), Career development and vocational behavior of racial/ethnic minorities (pp. 263–279). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bj(?)rgvinsson, T., & Wilde, G. (1995). Risk homeostasis and individual differences in health and safety habits. In Accidents, safety and risk taking. Symposium conducted at the Annual Convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.
Borkovec, T. D., Ray, W. J., & St?ber, J. (1998). Worry: A cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioral processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 561-576.
Brown, W. T., & Jones, J. M. (2004). The substance of things hoped for: A study of the future orientation, minority status perceptions, academic engagement, and academic performance of black high school students. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 248-273.
Buhler, C. & Marschak, M. (1968). Basic tendencies of human life. In C. Bhhler & F. Massarik (Eds.), The Course of human life: a study of goals in the humanistic perspective (pp. 92-102). New York: Springer.
Butler, R., & Neuman, O. (1995). Effects of task and ego achievement goals on help-seeking behaviours and attitudes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 261–271.
Cantor, N. (1990). From thought to behavior:“Having”and“doing”in the study of personality and cognition. American Psychologist, 45, 735–750.
Chang, E., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Dooley, D., & Heckhausen, J. (2006). What do they want in life(?) The life goals of a multi-ethnic, multi-generational sample of high school seniors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 321–332.
Chen, X. Y., Bian, Y. F., Xin, T., Wang, L., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2010). Perceived social change and childrearing attitudes in China. European Psychologist, 15, 260–270.
Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1995). Motivation and mathematics achievement: A comparative study of Asian-American, Caucasian-American, and East Asian high school students. Child Development, 66, 1215-1234.
Cohen, P., & Cohen, J. (1996). Life values and adolescent mental health. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Association.
Cohen, P., & Cohen, J. (2001). Life values and mental health in adolescence. In P. Schmuck & K.M. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals and well-being. Gottingen: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers.
Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., & Angold, A. (2006). Is there an epidemic of child or adolescent depression? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 47, 1263–1271.
Creed, P. A., Conlon, E. G., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Career barriers and reading ability as correlates of career aspirations and expectations of parents and their children. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70, 242–258.
Creed, P., Tilbury, C., Buys, N., & Crawford, M. (2011). Cross-lagged relationships between career aspirations and goal orientation in early adolescents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 78, 92–99.
Crum, R. M., Storr, C. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2005). Are educational aspirations associated with the risk of alcohol use and alcohol use-related problems among adolescents? Substance Use and Misuse, 40, 151–169.
Cury, F., Da Fonseca, D., Rufo, M., & Sarrazin, P. (2002). Perceptions of competence, implicit theory of ability, perception of motivational climate, and achievement goals: A test of trichotomous conceptualization of endorsement of achievement motivation in the physical education setting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 233–244.
D’Argembeau, A., Renaud, O., & Linden, M. V. D. (2011). Frequency, Characteristics and Functions of Future-oriented Thoughts in Daily Life. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 1(25), 96-103.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The“what”and“why”of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304.
De Bilde, J., Vansteenkiste, M., & Lens, W. (2011). Understanding the association between future time perspective and self-regulated learning through the lens of self-determination theory. Learning and Instruction, 21(3), 332–344.
De Volder, M. L., & Lens, W. (1982). Academic achievement and future time perspective as a cognitive-motivational concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 566–571.
Dickson, J. M., & MacLeod, A. K. (2004a). Approach and avoidance goals and plans: Their relationship to anxiety and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 415–432.
Dickson, J. M., & MacLeod, A. K. (2004b). Brief report: Anxiety, depression and approach and avoidance goals. Cognition and Emotion, 18, 423–430.
Dickson, J. M., & MacLeod, A. K. (2006). Dysphoric adolescents’causal explanations and expectancies for approach and avoidance goals. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 177–191.
Diemer, M. A., & Blustein, D. L. (2007). Vocational hope and vocational identity: Urban adolescents’career development. Journal of Career Assessment, 15, 98–118.
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34-43.
Douvan, E., & Adelson, J. (1966). The Adolescent experience. New York, NY: Wiley.
Duchesne, S., Larose, S., Guay, F., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2005). The transition from elementary to high school: The pivotal role of family and child characteristics in explaining trajectories of academic functioning. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 409–417.
Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75– 146). San Francisco: Freeman.
Eccles, J. S., Lord, S., & Buchanan, C. M. (1996). School transitions in early adolescence: What are we doing to our young people? In: J. A., Graber, J. Brooks-Gunn, & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence (pp. 251–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erbaum.
Eichenbaum, H., & Fortin, N. J. (2009). The neurobiology of memory based predictions. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 364, 1183-1191.
Eisenberg, N. (2006). The preface of social, emotional, and personality development. In: W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 3). New York: John Wiley.
Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. EducationalPsychologist, 34, 169–189.
Elliot, A. J. (2005). A conceptual history of the achievement goal construct. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 52–72). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–232.
Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance goals and intrinsic motivation: a mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461–475.
Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058–1068.
Emmons, R. A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 292–300.
Erikson E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Ferla, J., Valcke, M., & Cai, Y. (2009). Academic self-efficacy and academic self concept: Reconsidering structural relationships. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 499?505.
Fiorentine, R. (1988). Increasing similarity in the values and life plans of male and female college students? Evidence and implications. Sex Roles, 18, 143–158.
Ford, D. H. & Lemer, R. M. (1992). Developmental systems theory: An integrative approach. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Fortin, L., Marcotte, D., Potvin, P., Royer,é., & Joly, J. (2006). Typology of students at risk of dropping out of school: Description by personal, family, and school factors. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21, 363–383.
Fr(?)jd, S. A., Nissinen, E. S., Pelkonen, M. U. I., Marttunen, M. J., Koivisto, A. M., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2008). Depression and school performance in middle adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 485–498.
Fuligni, A J, Tseng, V, & Lam, M. (1999). Attitudes toward family obligations among American adolescents from Asian, Latin American, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 70, 1030-1044.
Fuligni, A. & Zhang, W. X. (2004). Attitudes towards family obligation among adolescents in contemporary urban and rural China. Child Development, 75, 180–192.
Fuligni, A. (1998). Authority, autonomy, and parent-adolescent conflict and cohesion: A study of adolescent with Mexican, Chinese, Filipino, and European backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 34, 782–792.
Fuligni, A. J. & Eccles, J. S. (1993). Perceived parent-child relationships and early adolescents’orientation toward peers. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 622–632.
Fuligni, A. J., & Zhang, W. X. (2004). Attitudes Toward Family Obligation Among Adolescents in Contemporary Urban and Rural China. Child Development, 74, 180–192.
Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9, 103–110.
Garber, J., & Little, S. A. (2001). Emotional autonomy and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 355-371.
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder Jr., G. H. (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 404–417.
Gilman, R., Dooley, J., & Florell, D. (2006). Relative levels of hope and their relationship with academic and psychological indicators among adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 166–178.
Gordon Rouse, K. A. (2001). Resilient students’goals and motivation. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 461–472.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28(6), 545–579.
Gottlieb, G. (2007). Probabilistic epigenesis. Developmental Science, 1, 1–11.
Graber, J. (2006). Depression in children and adolescents: Linking risk research and prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31, 104–125.
Greene, A. L. (1986). Future time perspective in adolescence: The present of things future revisited. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15(2), 99-113.
Greene, B. A. & DeBacker, T. K. (2004). Gender and Orientations Toward the Future: Links toMotivation. Educational Psychology Review, 16(2), 91-120.
Greene, B. A., Miller, R. B., Crowson, H. M., Duke, B. L., & Akey, K. L. (2004). Predicting high school students' cognitive engagement and achievement: Contributions of classroom perceptions and motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 462-482.
Guay, F., Marsh, H. W., & Boivin, M. (2003). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives and their causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 124-136.
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Siler, M. (2001). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 607–632.
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 638–645.
Hardman, A. M. (2008). Youth-adult relationships within community-based programs: their impact on the development of youth empowerment. Thesis, Kansas State University.
Hardy, R. E., & Cull, J. G. (1999). A psychodynamic approach to acceptance and adjustment to disability. In: G. L. Gandy (Ed.), Counseling in the rehabilitation process: Community services for mental and physical disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 177–203). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Hayenga, A. O., & Corpus, J. H. (2010). Profiles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A person-centered approach to motivation and achievement in middle school. Motivation and Emotion, 34, 371-383.
Heckhausen, J. & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102, 284–304.
Hill, N. E. (2006). Disentangling ethnicity, socioeconomic status and parenting: Interactions, influences and meaning. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 1(1), 114-124.
Hill, N. E., Castellino, D. R., Lansford, J. E., Nowlin, P., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., et al (2004). Parent academic involvement as related to school behavior, achievement, and aspirations: Demographic variations across adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1491–1509.
Hirsch, J. K., Duberstein, P. R., Conner, K. R., Heisel, M. J., Beckman, A., & Franus, N., et al. (2007). Future orientation moderates the relationship between functional status and suicide ideation in depressed adults. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 196-201.
Hirsch, J. K., Wolford, K., Lalonde, S. M., Brunk, L., & Parker-Morris, A. (2009). Optimistic explanatory style as a moderator of the association between negative life events and suicide ideation. Crisis, 30(1), 48-53.
Honora, D. T. (2002). The relationship of gender and achievement to future outlook among African American adolescents. Adolescence, 37, 301–316.
Hogan, M. J. (2008). Modest systems psychology: A neutral complement to positive psychological thinking. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 25, 717–732.
Hsee, C. K., & Abelson, R. P. (1991). Velocity relation: Satisfaction as a function of the first derivative of outcome over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 341–347.
Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008). The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychological Review, 115(2), 291–313.
Jacobsen, T., & Hofmann, V. (1997). Children's Attachment Representations: Longitudinal Relations to School Behavior and Academic Competency in Middle Childhood and Adolescence. Developmental Psychology , 33(4), 703–710.
Jodl, K.M.,Michael, A., Malanchuk, O., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2001). Parents’roles in shaping early adolescents’occupational aspirations. Child Development, 72, 1247–1265.
Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-analysis and cascading model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 54–78.
Kandel, D. B., & Lesser, G. S. (1969). Parental and peer influence on educational plans of adolescents. American Sociological Review, 34, 213–223.
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contribution and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 141-187.
Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410–422.
Kasser, T., Ryan, R. M., Zax, M., & Sameroff, A. J. (1995). The relations of maternal and social environments to late adolescents’materialistic and prosocial values. Developmental Psychology, 31, 907–914.
Kaufman, A. & Dodge, T. (2009). Student perceptions and motivation in the classroom: exploring relatedness and value. Social Psychology of Education, 12, 101-112.
Khallad, Y. (2000). Education and career aspirations of Palestinian and U.S. Youth. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 789–791.
Kiuru, N., Aunola, K., Vuori, J., & Nurmi, J-E. (2007). The Role of Peer Groups in Adolescents’Educational Expectations and Adjustment. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 36, 995-1009.
Klineberg, S. L. (1967). Changes in outlook of the future between childhood and adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 185-193.
Knox, M., Funk, J., Elliott, R., & Bush, E. G. (2000). Gender differences in adolescents’possible selves. Youth & Society, 31 (3), 287-309.
Lang, F. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships. Psychology and aging, 17, 125–139.
Lanz, M., & Rosnati, R. (2002). Adolescents’and young adults’construction of the future: Effects of family relations, self-esteem, and sense of coherence. In J. Trempa?a & L. E. Malmberg (Eds.). Adolescents’future-orientation. Theory and research (Vol. 691). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Laurin, K., Fitzsimons, G. M., & Kay, A. C. (2011). Social Disadvantage and the Self-Regulatory Function of Justice Beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 149-171.
Laursen, B., & Hoff, E. (2006). Person-centered and variable-centered approaches to longitudinal data. Merrill.
Lawrence, J. W., Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Velocity toward goal attainment in immediate experience as a determinant of affect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 788–802.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141-170.
Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds). The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 25-41). Comparative Education Research Centre and Victoria: Hong Kong.
Lens, W., & Decruyenaere, M. (1991). Motivation and de-motivation in secondary education: student characteristics. Learning and Instruction, 1, 145–159.
Lent, R. W., Sheu, H-B., Singley, D., Schmidt, J. A., Schmidt, L. C., & Gloster C. S. (2008). Longitudinal relations of self-efficacy to outcome expectations, interests, and major choice goals in engineering students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 328–335.
Lerner, R. M. (1982). Children and adolescents as producers of their own development. Developmental Review, 2, 342-370.
Lerner, R. M. (2002). Concepts and theories of human development (3rd ed). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 1–17). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B. et al. (2005). Positive Youth Development, Participation in Community Youth Development Programs, and Community Contributions of Fifth-Grade Adolescents: Findings From the First Wave Of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71.
Liberska, H. (2002). Life perspectives of adolescents in the context of social and economic changes in Poland. In J. Trempa?a & L. E. Malmberg (Eds.). Adolescents’future-orientation: Theory and research (Vol. 691). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Liem, A. D., Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2008). The role of self-efficacy, task value, and achievement goals in predicting learning strategies, task disengagement, peer relationship, and achievement outcome. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 486-512.
Linley, A. P., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 3-16.
Livneh, H., & Antonak, R. F. (1997). Psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and disability.Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Locke, E. A. (2002). Setting goals for life and happiness. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 299–312). New York: Oxford University Press.
Looker, E. D., & McNutt, K. L. (1989). The effect of occupational aspirations on the educational attainments of males and females. Canadian Journal of Education, 14, 352-367.
Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R., Magyar-Moe, J. L., Edwards, L. M., Pedrotti, J. T., Janowski, K., et al. (2004). Strategies for accentuating hope. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 388–404). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Magnusson, D., & Bergman, L. R. (1990). A pattern approach to the study of pathways from childhood to adulthood. In L. N. Robins & M. Rutter (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 101–115). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mahoney, M. (1991). Human Change Processes: The Scientific Foundations of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Malmberg, L. E., Ehrman, J., & Lithén, T. (2005). Adolescents’and parents’future beliefs. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 709–723.
Malmberg, L., & Little, T. D. (2007). Profiles of ability, effort, and difficulty: Relationships with worldviews, motivation and adjustment. Learning and Instruction, 17, 739-754.
Malmberg, L. E., & Trempa-a, J. (1997). Anticipated transition to adulthood: The effect of educational track, gender, and self-evaluation on Finnish and Polish adolescents’future orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 517–537.
Marjoribanks, K. (2002a). Family background, individual and environmental in-uences on adolescents’aspirations. Educational Studies, 28, 33–46.
Marjoribanks, K. (2002b). Family contexts, individual characteristics, proximal settings, and adolescents’aspirations. Psychological Reports, 91, 769–779.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.
Marsh, A., Smith, L., Piek, J., & Saunders, B. (2003). The purpose in life scale: Psychometric properties for social drinkers and drinkers in alcohol treatment. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(5), 859-871.
Massey, E. K., Gebhardt, W. A., & Garnefski, N. (2008). Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years. Developmental Review, 28, 421-460.
Massey, E. K., Gebhardt, W. A., & Garnefski, N. (2009). Self-generated goals and goal process appraisals: Relationships with sociodemographic factors and well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 501-518.
Mau,W., & Bikos, L. H. (2000). Educational and vocational aspirations of minority and female students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 186-194.
McCabe, K. & Barnett, D. (2000). The relation between familial factors and the future orientation of urban, African American sixth graders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9(4), 494-508.
McGregor, I., & Little, B. R. (1998). Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: On doing well and being yourself. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 494–512.
McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Review, 28, 285-305.
Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students’goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 514-523.
Messersmith, E. E., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2008). When can we expect the unexpected- Predicting educational attainment when it differs from previous expectations. Journal of Social Issues, 64(1), 195–211.
Middleton, M., & Midgley, C. (1997). Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: an under-explored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 710-718.
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost- Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 77–86.
Miller, D. N., & Nickerson, A. B. (2007). Changing the past, present, and future: Potential applications of positive psychology in school-based psychotherapy with children and youth. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 24(1), 147-162.
Mirza, S. A., & Somers, C. L. (2004). Future orientation among Caucasian and Arab-American adolescents. School Psychology International, 25, 361–372.
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38,30-38.
Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774–789.
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 882–891.
Neblett, N. G. & Cortina, K. S. (2006). Adolescents’thoughts about parents’job and their importance for adolescents’future orientation. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 795-811.
Nicholls, J., Patashnick, M., & Nolen, S. B. (1985). Adolescents' theories of education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 683-692.
Nurmi, J.-E. (1989). Adolescents’orientation to the future: Development of interests and plans, and related attributions and affects, in the life-span context. Commentationes Scientiarum Socialium, 39. Helsinki: The Finnish Society for Sciences and Letters.
Nurmi, J.-E. (1991). How do adolescents see their future- A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Developmental Review, 11, 1–59.
Nurmi, J.-E. (1994). The development of future-orientation in a life-span context. In Z. Zaleski (Ed.), Psychology of future orientation (pp. 20–616). Lublin, Poland: Wydawnictwo Towarzystwa Naukowego Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego.
Nurmi, J.-E. (2001). Navigating through adolescence: Introduction. In J. E. Nurmi (Ed.),
Navigating through adolescence: European perspectives. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Nurmi, J.-E. (2004). Socialization and self-development: Channeling, selection, adjustment, and reflection. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.). Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 85–124). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Nurmi, J.-E., Liiceanu, A., & Liberska, H. (1999). Future-oriented interests. In F. D. Alsaker & A. Flammer (Eds.), The adolescent experience: European and American adolescents in the 1990s. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Nurmi, J.-E., Poole, M. E., & Kalakoski, V. (1994). Age differences in adolescent future-oriented goals, concerns, and related temporal extension in different sociocultural contexts. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23, 471–487.
Nurmi, J.-E., Poole, M., & Kalakoski, V. (1996). Age differences in adolescent identity exploration and commitment in urban and rural environments. Journal of Adolescence, 19, 443-452.
Nurmi, J.-E., Poole, M. E., & Seginer, R. (1995). Tracks and transitions: A comparison of adolescent future-oriented goals, explorations, and commitments in Australia, Israel, and Finland. International Journal of Psychology, 30, 355–375.
Nurmi, J.-E., & Pulliainen, H. (1991). The changing parent–child relationship, self-esteem, and intelligence as determinants of orientation to the future during early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 14, 35–51.
Nuttin, J. R. (1974). A relational theory of motivation and the dynamic function of cognitive contents (Psychological Reports No. 4). Louvain: University of Louvain.
Nuttin, J. R. (1984). Motivation, planning, and action. A relational theory of behavior dynamic. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
O’Neal, K. K. (2001). Adolescent risk behaviors and developmental contextualism: a person-oriented approach. Dissertation, Texas Tech University. -ner--zkan, B. (2007). Future time orientation and religion. Social Behavior and Personality, 35(1), 51-62.
Otrar, M., Eksi, H., Dilmac, B., & Sikin, A. (2002). The sources of stress, coping, and psychological well-being among Turkic and relative societies’students in Turkey. EDAM: Egitim Danismanligi Ve Arastirmalari Merkezi, 2, 473–506.
Ou, S.-R., & Reynolds, A. J. (2008). Predictors of educational attainment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(2), 199–229.
Oyserman, D., Gant, L., & Ager, J. (1995). A socially contextualized model of African American identity: Possible selves and school persistence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1216–1232.
Parke, R. D. (2004). The Society for Research in Child Development at 70: Progress and promise. Child Development, 75, 1-24.
Paulter, K. J. & Lewko, J. H. (1987). Children’s and adolescents’views of the work world in timesof economic uncertainty. In: J. Lewko (Ed.), How children and adolescents view the world of work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Payne, S. C., Youngcourt, S. S., & Beaubien, J. M. (2007). A meta-analytic examination of the goal orientation nomological net. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 128–150.
Peetsma, T. T. D. (2000). Future time perspective as a predictor of school investment. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44, 177-192.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunck, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Pomerantz, E. M., Ng, F. F., & Wang, Q. (2008). Culture, parenting, and motivation: The case of East Asia and the US. In M. L. Maehr, S. A. Karabenick, and T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Social psychological perspectives (Vol. 15, pp. 209-240). Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Group Publishing.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Reardon, J., & Williams, N. (2007). The specificity of cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders: Anxiety sensitivity, looming vulnerability and explanatory style. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 625–643.
Recchia, H. E. & Howe, N. (2009). Sibling Relationship Quality Moderates the Associations Between Parental Interventions and Siblings’Independent Conflict Strategies and Outcomes. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(4), 551-561.
Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (1998). Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: Longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 321–352.
Rojewski, J. W., & Yang, B. (1997). Longitudinal analysis of select in-uences on adolescents’occupational aspirations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 375–410.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Salmela-Aro, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (1997). Goal contents, well-being, and life context during transition to university: a longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 471-491.
Sanjuán, P., & Magallares, A. (2008). Coping strategies as link between optimistic explanatory styles and well-being. In T. Freire (Ed.), Understanding positive life. Research and practice on Positive Psychology (pp. 169–182). Lisbon: Climepsi Editores.
Schacter, D. L. & Addis, D. R. (2007). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 362, 773-786.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. & Silbereisen, R. K. (1998). Career maturity determinants: individual development, social context, and historical time. The Career Development Quarterly, 47, 16-31.
Schmuck, P. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic life goals preferences as measured via inventories and via priming methodologies: Mean differences and relations with well-being. In P. Schmuck & K. M. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals and well-being. Ashland, OH, US: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers.
Schoon, I., & Parsons, S. (2002). Teenage aspirations for future careers and occupational outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 262-288.
Schoon, I., Ross, A., & Martin, P. (2007). Science related careers: Aspirations and outcomes in two British cohort studies. Equal Opportunities International, 26, 129–143.
Seginer, R. (1988). Adolescents’orientation toward the future: Sex role differentiation in a sociocultural context. Sex Roles, 18, 739–757.
Seginer, R. (1992). Future orientation: Age-related differences among adolescent females. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 421–437.
Seginer, R. (2009). Future Orientation: Developmental and Ecological Perspectives. New York, NY: Springer.
Seginer, R., & Halabi-Kheir, H. (1998). Adolescents’passage to adulthood: Future orientation in the context of culture, age, and gender. Int. J. Intercult. Relat, 22, 309–328.
Seginer, R., Vermulst, A., & Shoyer, S. (2004). The indirect link between perceived parenting and adolescent future orientation: A multiple-step model. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(4), 365-378.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2008). Positive health. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 3-18.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410-421.
Sheldon, K. M. (2002). The self-concordance model of healthy goal-striving:When personal goals correctly represent the person. In E.L. Deci & R.M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 65–86). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 482–497.
Shell, D. F., & Husman, J. (2001). The multivariate dimensionality of personal control and future time perspective beliefs in achievement and self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 481–506.
Simons, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens,W., & Lacante, M. (2004). Placing motivation and future time perspective theory in a temporal perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 121–139.
Sinha, D. (1990). Intervention for development out of poverty. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 77-97). Newbury Park: Sage.
Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). PaloAlto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Stein, K. F., Roeser, R., & Markus, H. R. (1998). Self-schemas and possible selves as predictors and outcomes of risky behaviors in adolescents. Nursing Research, 47, 96–106.
Sylvers, P., Lilienfeld, S. O., & LaPrairie, J. L. (2011). Differences between trait fear and trait anxiety: Implications for psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 122–137.
Tabachnik, S. E., Miller, R. B., & Relyea, G. E. (2008). The relationships among students’future oriented goals and subgoals, perceived task instrumentality, and task-oriented self-regulation strategies in an academic environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 629–642.
Thomassen, T. O. & Halvari, H. (1996). Achievement motivation and involvement in sport competitions. Percept. Mot. Skills, 83, 1363–1374.
Trommsdorff, G. (1983). Future orientation and socialization. International Journal of Psychology, 18, 381-406.
Tuominen-Soini, H., Salmela-Aro, K. & Niemivirta, M. (2008). Achievement goal orientations and well-being. Learning and Instruction, 18, 251-266.
Tweed, R. G., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Learning considered within a cultural context: Confucian and Socratic approaches. American Psychologist, 57, 89-99.
Urdan, T. C. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 251–264.
Van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., & Farvolden, P. (2003). The impact of anxiety disorder on educational achievement. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 561–571.
Van der Veen, I., & Peetsma, T. (2011). Motivated for leisure in the future: A person-centred longitudinal study in the lowest level of secondary education. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 233-238.
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the impact of extrinsic versus intrinsic goal framing and internally controlling versus autonomy-supportive communication style upon early adolescents’academic achievement. Child Development, 76, 483-501.
Van Yperen, N.W., & Renkema, L.J. (2008). Performing great and the purpose of performing better than others: On the recursiveness of the goal adoption process. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 260-271.
Vollmer, F. (1984). Expectancy and academic achievement. Motivation and emotion, 8, 67-76. Walker, C. O., Greene, B. A., & Mansell, R. A. (2006). Identification with academics, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy as predictors of cognitive engagement. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 1-12.
Wilde, G. (1986). Beyond the concept of risk homeostasis: suggestions for research and application towards the prevention of accidents and lifestyle-related disease. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 18, 377–401.
Wilson, P. M., & Wilson, J. R. (1992). Environmental in-uences on adolescent educational aspirations. A logical transformation model. Youth and Society, 24, 52–69.
Wires, J., Barocas, R., & Hollenbeck, A. (1994). Determinants of adolescent identity development: A cross-sequential study of boarding school boys. Adolescence, 29, 361-378.
Wood, D., Kaplan, R., & McLoyd, V. C. (2007). Gender Differences in the Educational Expectations of Urban, Low-Income African American Youth: The Role of Parents and the School. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 36, 417-427.
Wu, W., West, S. G., & Hughes, J. N. (2008). Effect of Retention in First Grade on Children’s Achievement Trajectories Over 4 Years: A Piecewise Growth Analysis Using Propensity Score Matching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 727-740.
Yowell, C. M. (2000). Possible selves and future orientation: Exploring hopes and fears of Latino boys and girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 245–280.
Zhang, W. X., & Fuligni, A. J. (2006). Authority, Autonomy, and Family Relationships Among Adolescents in Urban and Rural China. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 527-537.
Zimbardo, P. G. and Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288.
陈祉妍,杨小冬,李新影. (2009).流调中心抑郁量表在我国青少年中的试用.中国临床心理学杂志, 17(4), 443–445.
国务院法制办公室. (2010).中共中央国务院关于印发《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年)》的通知.中国政府法制信息网, www.chinalaw.gov.cn.
侯佳伟,刘俊彦. (2006).中国青少年发展状况——统计数据分析报告(2005).中国青年研究(社会综合版), 1, 56–64.
黄艾丽,杜学元. (2007).关于我国城乡家庭教育差异的比较分析.宜宾学院学报, 1, 107–110.
李春玲. (2010).高等教育扩张与教育机会不平等——高校扩招的平等化效应考查.社会学研究, 3, 82–113.
吕厚超,黄希庭. (2005).时间洞察力的理论研究.心理科学进展, 13, 27–32.
李连英. (2006).农村家庭教育方式研究.继续教育研究, 2, 95–97.
汪向东,王希林,马弘. (1999).心理卫生评定量表手册.中国心理卫生杂志社. 200–241.
温忠麟,侯杰泰, Marsh H W. (2008).结构方程模型中调节效应的标准化估计.心理学报, 40(6), 729–736.
于凤杰,徐夫真,王姝琼,张玲玲,张文新. (2010).城乡普高生与中职生对未来的规划和态度.心理发展与教育, 26(2), 161–168.
张玲玲. (2008).青少年未来取向的发展与家庭、同伴因素的关系.山东师范大学博士学位论文.
张玲玲,张文新. (2008).中晚期青少年的个人规划及其与亲子、朋友沟通的关系.心理学报, 40(5), 583–592.
张玲玲,张文新,纪林芹, Nurmi, J-E. (2006).青少年未来取向问卷中文版的测量学分析.心理发展与教育, 22(1), 103–108.
张玲玲,张文新,周秀琴,胡艺馨,王姝琼. (2008).普高生与中职生的个人未来目标和担忧. 心理发展与教育, 24(4), 50–55.
张文新,陈光辉. (2009).发展情境论——一种新的发展系统理论.心理科学进展, 17(4), 736–744.
张文新,张玲玲,纪林芹, Nurmi, J-E. (2006).青少年的个人发展目标和担忧.心理科学, 29(2), 274–277.
张文新. (2002).青少年发展心理学.济南:山东人民出版社.