摘要
近年来,众多研究者对学习者因素进行了深入的研究,并一致认为学习者因素对于外语和二语学习的成功至关重要。其中,对学习成效产生重大影响的当数情感问题,如态度,移情,动机,焦虑等。大量调查研究结果已经充分证实了这一点(如,Gardner,Tremblay & Masgoret,1997)。同时,不少的研究人员认为,语言焦虑是情感领域中最重要的因素之一(如,E.K.Horwitz,M.B.Horwitz &Cope,1986)。
有关语言焦虑的研究从不同的角度切入,并取得了很大进展。其中势头最强劲的就是对焦虑与学习者观念,性格,文化差异,学业成绩等各种因素之间相关性的研究。基于丰富的研究成果,这些外语学习因素都被证明是与焦虑密切相关的激发因素。那么,具体说来,这个领域进行了哪些研究,得出了什么结论?本文旨在通过对26个此类实证研究的全面性的综述,以期为这个问题得出满意的答案。这些研究均选自过去20年左右的文献范围,或者把焦虑作为语言学习模式的因素之一,或者直接考察焦虑对语言学习的影响(附录A以出版年份为顺序,将这26个实证研究一一列出)。
全文共分五章。
第一章简要地探讨情感因素对外语和二语学习的重要作用之后,引入焦虑感这个概念。作为一种负面的情感因素,语言焦虑与语言学习同样密切相关,且大多数情况下对语言学习过程及成效产生消极的影响。
第二章着手讨论以待综述的文献的理论框架。第一节从非语言学习的角度介绍焦虑的各种定义,并由此归纳出焦虑的基本特征:1)焦虑是一个心理概念;2)焦虑与情感认知相关;3)焦虑是一个复杂的多维概念。焦虑的这些特征明显地反映出它对行为本身确实存在负面影响。然后过渡到语言焦虑的定义,阐述了MacIntyre和Gardner对焦虑的分类(特质焦虑,状态焦虑,特定情景焦虑),Horwitz及同仁对语言焦虑的重要定义。前者的贡献在于区分这三类焦虑,并认为语言焦虑就是一种特定情景焦虑,而非一般的焦虑。这就为准确定义语言焦虑奠定了基础。后者将语言焦虑定义为交际焦虑,考试焦虑及害怕负评价焦虑,并据此设计出著名的《外语课堂焦虑量表》。Horwitz等人的语言焦虑定义及量表均得到大多数研究者的认可,语言焦虑研究也从此开始得出一致的结论。第二节从不同的研究角度分析三类语言焦虑:促进性焦虑与抑制性焦虑;输入,加工及输出焦虑;一般语言焦虑与语言技能焦虑。这也充分证明了语言焦虑本身及其与语言学习之间关系的复杂性。
第三章详细论述研究问题及结论。为使论述条理清楚,作者暂将语言焦虑主要的相关因素(列表3.1)归纳为八类:学习者个人背景因素(性别,语言学习经历,年级差别);语言资质及技能;文化差异;学习者观念(学习者对自己的评价看法以及对外语学习的观念和态度);动机;性格特质(完美主义,积极的交际倾向);课堂因素(教学活动,教师一学生之间的交互,学习氛围);学习成效(总成绩,语言学习活动的完成)。首先对相关因素给出必要的概念性的解释,并将其与语言焦虑相关的重要研究做出简要的阐释,让读者大概了解这个领域的研究成果及发展趋势。接着,归纳出具体的研究问题,据此分门别类对相关研究结果一一进行归纳。最后,作者对所有的研究结果进行总结性的讨论。
第四章是对研究方法的综述。首先总结并简要讨论本文相关研究的环境(外语或二语),研究方法(列表4.1)以及研究对象(列表4.2)。然后着重论述研究方案(定量和定性研究)。随后分别对数据收集和分析步骤进行讨论。
最后,基于前面三章对相关研究详尽的综述内容,第五章从三个方面做出总结性评价。首先指出语言焦虑定义及研究方法的局限。然后探讨这些研究对于焦虑理论的发展及教学实践的意义所在,并指明以后的研究方向。
总的说来,本综述性研究表明了语言焦虑对于外语及二语学习的重大影响,同时也证明了语言焦虑与其他学习因素相关性研究是探究学习者焦虑根源的有效途径。教师应当通过这些重要的研究发现增进对语言焦虑的认识,努力为学生创造一个和谐的学习环境,同时帮助学生控制焦虑感,最终达到促进外语教学的目的。
In recent years, more and more researchers have recognized that the success of foreign language/ second language (FL/SL) learning depends largely on the learner herself or himself. So they paid a lot of attention to learner variables, among which great importance in FL/SL learning outcomes has been attached to affective elements such as attitude, empathy, motivation, anxiety, etc. An increasing number of studies have indeed confirmed that the affective aspect of the learner is one of the biggest influence on language learning success or failure (Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret,1997). Meanwhile, anxiety-the most common manifestation of negative affect-has been found to be a pervasive and prominent force in language learning context (E.K.Horwitz, M.B.Horwitz & Cope, 1986).
Along with several lines of inquiry, great progress has been made in this field. One of the most promising areas has been research into foreign language anxiety and related constructs, like learner beliefs, personality, cultual differences, language achievement, and so on. By virtue of the abundant studies, these various factors concerning FL/SL learning have all been proved to be anxiety-provoking or closely correlate to language anxiety. Then, what specific researches have been done in this area and what do they show? The purpose of the current paper is to conduct an all-sided and critical review of some empirical studies on relationship between anxiety and the related elements in FL/SL learning of post-puberty learners (adolescents and adults). The literature to be reviewed comes from twenty-six studies, conducted over the past two decades, that either have included anxiety in models of language learning or are focused directly on the role of anxiety in language learning (Appendix A contains a list of the reviewed studies, arranged by year of publication).
The thesis consists of five chapters.
Chapter one provides an introductory discussion about the importance of affective variables, and the subset anxiety, in FL/SL learning. Since affect filters all learning and cognition, high anxiety, as a negative emotion, impedes language performance and achievement.
Chapter two involves the theoretical foundation of the reviewed language anxiety studies. The first section defines the concept of anxiety from literature both on non-classroom-related anxiety and FL/SL-learning-related anxiety. Since experts do not agree consistently on the definition of general anxiety, after making a comprehensive survey in the whole literature, the author tries to identify some distinctive attributes of this construct: 1) a psychological construct;2) emotional cognition related; 3) a complex and multi-dimentional entity. As for conceptualization of language anxiety, MacIntyre and Gardner's theory (trait anxiety, state anxiety, situation specific anxieties) and Horwitz et al.'s approach (communication apprehension, test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation) are presented. It is based on their great contribution that subsequent research has begun to conclude consistently. The second section analyzes classifications of language anxieties concerning some specific research areas (facilitating and debilitating anxiety; input, processing and output anxiety; general language anxiety and language skill specific anxiety).
Chapter three moves to the research issues raised in the studies, including the questions and findings. For the purpose of a pellucid discussion, the major correlates of anxiety are tentatively divided into eight categories: demographic variables (gender, prior language learning experience, years of study), language aptitude and skill, cultural differences, learner beliefs (self-beliefs, learner beliefs about language learning), motivation, personality variables (perfectionism, willingness to communicate), instructional condition (instructional practices, instructor-learner interaction, learning atmosphere) as well as language achievement (broad-based measures, language specific task performance). A brief explanation and discussion about each of these terms is provided before the research questions and findings. Then, discussion about the research findings are provided. A table, "correlates of language anxiety", is included.
Chapter four deals with the research methodologies used in the studies under consideration. The general information about the environment of foreign language learning or second language learning (FLL / SLL), methods as well as participants is summarized. Then a detailed discussion on the research design is carried out. Of all the reviewed studies, 24 used quantitative methods and eight qualitative (some adopted both.). Data collection instruments and analysis procedures in the two approaches are reviewed respectively. Two tables, "research methods" and "research participants" are also included in this chapter.
Based on the exhaustive discussion in the previous three parts, chapter five gives an overall evaluation of the researches. Firstly, attention is paid on the limitations in terms of conceptualisation of language anxiety and research methodology. Secondly, implications for theoretical improvement as well as practical applications are drawn. Lastly, possibilities for further research are also explored, concerning theoretical foundation, research issues, and research methodology.
On the whole, the researches reviewed in the current paper have revealed a significant role language anxiety plays in FL/SL learning. It is also justified that investigation into the relationship between language anxiety and the correlates is a very good way to elicite sources of this pervasive emotion. Teachers are suggested to gain in their understanding of this issue through these meaningful research findings in this field, try to create a nonthreatening learning environment and at the same time help students cope with language anxiety, finally enhance FL/SL learning and teaching.
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