摘要
汉字是中国文化的象征,有着数千年的历史,它作为一种标记文字,长时期在东亚文化圈内应用和发展下去。汉字虽然是属于语言学领域的概念,同时又作为一种文明的存续,与历史、政治以及文化等诸多因素紧密地联系在一起。长期以来,汉字作为传播文化信息的重要媒介物,以古代中国的中原地区为核心,逐渐传播到朝鲜半岛、日本列岛以及越南等周边地区,形成了所谓的东亚文化圈。之后这些地区的语言系统中不断演变和发展成新的文字形态。为了规范东亚文化圈内的汉字使用问题,并维持汉字的健康发展,考察汉字在各地区的本土化过程是一件至关重要的研究课题。
本论文从汉字文化学的角度出发,运用语言时空论、语言接触与演变理论等诸多理论,通过考察朝鲜半岛、日本以及越南等地区的汉字本土化过程,再次验证汉字的作用与使命。考察时期分为汉字的传播阶段,汉字的受容阶段,新文字创造后的汉字应用阶段以及文字改革中的汉字应用阶段等四个阶段。
朝鲜半岛(如今的韩国与朝鲜),日本以及越南等地区同属个文化圈。他们都以汉字作为媒介接受了中国的先进文化,而且借用汉字标记本土语言,后来把汉字融合到本土的语言文字系统中,也算是成功地运用了汉字本身所具有的优点和魅力。尽管各地区成功创制了新义字,汉字作为通用文字的权威也未能立刻消失,再加上言文不一致的现象也促进了汉字在这些地区的持续应用与广泛普及。但在借用汉字的过程中,他们渐渐发现汉字与自己的语言格格不入,不足以完美地去表达人们的思想和意识形态。随后,近代文明开化期的到来和对西洋文明的追求成为了汉字丧失作为通用文字地位的重要历史背景,也是各地区走向言文一致的动力。这些地区在吸收西方文化的过程中,虽然需要用大量的汉字来翻译外来语,但始终认为汉字是落后国家的产物,而且解读汉字也有一定的困难。
如今,越南和朝鲜虽然在语言生活中彻底废除了汉字的使用,创建一种新的语言文字系统,但仍使用着有大量的汉字借用词汇,随着现代化经济的发展和交流的加速化,新的汉字借用词汇将不断地增加。而在长期受到外部势力支配的韩国,汉字被视为是外部文字,同时被置之度外于国语系统之外,甚至还和民族纯粹主义和自主独立相连接到一起。日本,始终认为汉字是国语的一部分,汉字学研究、学校的汉字教育以及一系列的汉字相关政策也呈现出稳定而成熟的姿势。
韩国和日本为了保持民族的纯洁性,并解决汉字解读困难等诸多问题,也试图通过实施各种文字政策或学校教育,有意识地限制汉字的使用。尽管如此,在其过程中也碰到了种种难以解决的问题。因此,韩国虽然在日常生活中实现了无汉字标记的境界,但人名、地名以及道路标识等特殊领域里还是保留着汉字并记(即国汉混用)的标记方法。日本通过颁布当用汉字表和常用汉字表等具有一贯性的汉字政策,让国民在日常生活中继续广泛应用着汉字。
在不断完善自己的语言文字系统的过程中,各地区为了防止废除汉字而导致的莫大经济损失问题和即将产生的社会混乱等现象,根据本国的实情,实施了符合本土语言文字系统的汉字标记方法和应用方式,所以到现在汉字在这些地区的影响力可谓是功不可没,不管在韩国和日本,还是在越南与朝鲜,汉字借用词汇的比例已经超过了整个词汇系统的50%以上。有的词汇在不认识汉字的情况下,人们无法正确地掌握词汇的意义以及该词汇与派生词之间的相互关系。汉字在朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的应用有共同点和不同点,可以说每一个历史发展阶段里,汉字的发展规律也是千差万别。进入近代化时期到现在,这些地区陆陆续续出现过‘汉字废除论’、‘汉字限制论’、‘汉字简化论’等各种不同的争论点。为了汉字更好的发展,我们必须要对汉字的未来做出科学而可行性的选择。
通过本文,主要期待明确以下几点：
第一,超越以往单纯的两国对比研究,以朝鲜半岛、日本、越南地区为主要考察对象；
第二,虽然‘传播’与‘受容’是两个不同的概念,在许多汉字学研究里,一直被视为是同一个阶段或过程。本文把这两个概念完全区别开来,即外部文字作用时期和内部化文字转变时期,重新整理汉字传播到各地区的途径,并弄清汉字到底是在什么样的背景下渗透到这些地区的社会生活中的；
第三,如今汉字已从越南、朝鲜等地区的语言文字系统中脱离出来,但这些地区在不同层次上仍受汉字的影响。为具体掌握各地区的汉字应用方式、标记方法以及汉字编码等问题,参考现代化时期越南与朝鲜的文字使用情况和相关语言文字政策是必不可少的；
第四,东亚共同体的形成对东亚各地区来说,是备受瞩目的一件事情,它代表着东亚文化圈在未来的崭新面貌。东亚共同体的发展过程中,现代化时期出现的一系列汉字问题是逐步要去完善化和规范化的研究课题,全面了解各地区的汉字问题,有助于东亚共同体的健康发展。
本文的内容主要分为七个章节。
第一章为绪论部分,阐明了研究背景与研究目的、相关研究动态和理论根据以及研究方法和研究范围。
第二章主要分为三个部分。第一部分阐述了世界文字与文化的关联性,第二部分介绍了中国的文字系统和汉字的产生、发展以及每一个历史发展过程中的演变。第三部分通过简单梳理先行研究内容。本论文的结论部分会补充它的不足之处,并指出错误的历史观点。
第三章阐述了汉字在东亚地区的传播过程。主要考察汉字是在什么样的背景下传播到东亚地区的,其中政治、历史、文化等因素又起到了怎样的关键性作用。东亚地区接受汉字,一开始带有很强的政治气息,确切地说,应该是为了维持与古代中国的政治来往。除此之外,为了更近一步地了解中国,也需要精通和了解大量的汉文书籍。另外,处在无文字时代的朝鲜、日本以及越南等地区迫切地需要借用汉字来标记本国的语言。这些综合因素都促进了汉字在东亚的传播。
第四章阐述了汉字在东亚地区的受容过程。汉字象征着中国的先进文化,通过政治、文化、教育等诸多制度的传播,一同流入到朝鲜半岛、日本以及越南等地区,并开始普及起来。这个时候,汉字作为标记手段的语言内部功能开始受重视。汉字的传播轨迹明显具有阶级层次性,能接触到汉字,并能精通汉字的统治阶级以及贵族阶层,使汉字成为了东亚地区的通用文字。借用汉字来标记本土语言的过程中,由于东亚各地区受不同民族、文化等因素的影响,形成了本民族独有的受容方式。这个阶段,以汉字为核心的东亚文化圈,其共性被弱化,各地区的个性逐渐开始强化。
第五章阐述了新文字创造之后的汉字应用过程。新文字的创造以近代文明的导入和近代国家的建立为基础。进入近代化时期之后,朝鲜半岛、日本以及越南等地区促进了汉字的本土化进程,由借用和模仿汉字的阶段跨越到了新文字的创造。于是这个时期产生了训民正音’、‘万叶假名’和‘字喃’等文字。西方文明的传播和近代国家的建立,让东亚文化圈面临瓦解和重构的局面。汉字作为这个文化圈的核心因素,它在东亚地区的通用性遭到了危机。但因为新文字创造之初,东亚各地区未能马上实现文言一致,这些新文字只能作为补助手段被使用。汉字虽然失去了通用文字的权威功能,但仍然普及在整个社会里。
第六章阐述了东亚各地区的文字改革以及汉字相关政策。东亚各地区的文字改革与政策最能直接地反映汉字问题的各个环节,它的成功与否与政治、经济、文化等诸多因素密切相关。通过分析东亚各地区的语言政策,彻底掌握汉字能在这些地区持续发展下去的背景和实质,并指出汉字应用中所存在的各种现象和问题。
第七章主要分为三个部分。第一部分为综合分析,第二部分涉及到了东亚共同体的建立与现代汉字问题,第三部分为结论。在综合分析部分对汉字本土化的每个过程都做出了总结,举出了本论文的新论点和新的研究成果。第二部分阐明了建立东亚共同体的必要性,简单介绍了现代汉字问题的研究内容与方向。本论文在最后结论部分强调了在研究汉字问题时,不能盲目地相信缺乏实践性和科学根据的理论,也不能强硬地坚持语言的纯粹性,应综合考虑汉字的应用发展情况来规范它的使用,保持健康的发展方向。
回顾一下有关汉字问题的先行研究,从单纯的语言学角度出发,研究汉字的构造与形态,汉字词等问题的占很大比重。可是结合历史、政治以及文化等外部因素,分析汉字发展的整个过程中,并考察这些外部因素对其产生的影响和干预的内容却很少。本论文与以往的研究不同,摆脱语言学层面的单纯比较研究,把历史、政治、文化等外部因素融入进来,将汉字归属到东亚文化圈的形成与发展以及新东亚共同体的出现这一主题中进行具体探讨。考虑诸多外部因素对汉字发展的影响和作用,重新梳理汉字在东亚各地区的本土化过程,对先行研究成果的可靠性提出质疑,最后对这些质疑给出了一个圆满的答案。
本文的第三章到第六章的内容里,集中考察了朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的汉字本土化过程以及在其过程中受到政治、历史、文化等因素影响的环节。考察结果发现,朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区虽属于同一个文化圈,根据每个地区的不同情况,它们的汉字本土化过程存在共性,同时也存在着很大的个性。其中,表音文字的使用在韩国与越南已经发展到成熟的阶段,日本至今坚持使用表音表意混合体的标记方法。如野村雅昭所指出,朝鲜半岛与越南在相对短的时间内进入表音文字的专用期,可能与汉字的使用只局限于汉文为中心的文句里,尚未确立以汉字为基础的口头语标记体系有关。日本因着重于以汉字使用为基础的文言一致,所以至今还坚持使用表音表意混合体标记方法。下面简单总结一下本文的综合分析与结论部分。
第一,朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区汉字传播的综合分析与结论。
首先,就有关汉字传播到朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的决定性因素问题,根据先行研究所提供的诸多见解进行了具体分析。分析得出,最为核心的因素为与古代中国来往的政治需求,而不是为了引进中国的先进文化或者对文字的社会需求。
其次,有关汉字的传播轨迹问题中包含着战争移民,汉文书籍的解读,宗教的引进以及中国封建制度的引进等诸多因素。但通过本文的分析得出,在这些因素中中国的官吏制度或教育制度通过汉人传播到朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的历史事实成为了日后汉字在这些地区发展成通用文字的先决条件。在这些地区,汉字最初是因政治需求被接受,但他们也试着通过引进中国的先进文化以及各项制度来创造文明社会。同时在这过程中摆脱了只能使用口头语的语言环境,逐渐将汉字视为一种标记手段来使用。
第二,朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区汉字受容的综合分析与结论。
汉字的传播过程可以说是通过政治、历史、文化等外部因素来实现它的空间移动,因此在这个过程中汉字无法深层次地融入到各地区的语言系统内部。汉字的受容与传播有所不同,这也是笔者将汉字的传播过程与受容过程严格区分开来的原因。进一步来说,进入受容过程之后,汉字虽摆脱了局限于政治、经济、文化等层次的阶段,但仍无法在各地区的语言系统内部得到成熟而稳定的发展。汉字的受容过程,简单说就是本土化过程的过渡期。它意味着习惯于使用口头语的各地区民族,在掌握了汉字的表音、表意功能之后,将最大限度地发挥汉字的优越性来表达个人感情或思想意识。因此,这个时期各地区的个性会显得尤其突出。这是汉字的内部功能开始受到重视之后,与本土语言发生矛盾和冲突时,汉字逐渐去适应本土语言发展趋势的一种必然选择。
本文中所涉及的汉字受容过程,主要分为借用与模仿两个阶段。汉字的借用过程中,朝鲜半岛与日本重视汉字的表音功能,越南相对重视汉字的表意功能。这也是日后汉字与字喃在越南彻底消失的决定性因素之一。另外,本文注意到了汉字的政治、历史、文化等外部功能在受容过程中所发生的变化。这个时期,汉字的诸多外部功能并没有因内部功能的强化而萎缩。由于各地区的统治阶级积极向平民百姓推进汉字的普及化,汉字作为通用文字的绝对地位变得更加牢固,汉字的外部功能也进一步被强化。关于这一点,根据考察其历史背景可以看出,主要是由于朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区为了不断加深汉字的本土化程度,甚至创制出新的文字,但新文字体系尚未成熟,缺乏稳定性的缘故。
第三,朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区汉字本土化过程的综合分析与结论。
欧洲与日本帝国主义所实施的侵略战争与殖民地政策在以往的先行研究成果里通常被指责为是深刻的历史问题。这些行为强行控制了被侵略和被殖民地区的民族意识以及语言文字的使用。因此东亚文化圈面临解体的危机,固有的东亚价值观也瞬间被否定。随着西方文化与先进技术的引进,各地区实现了民族解放和近代化发展,同时又成功建立了符合自己实情的近代国家,他们的文字生活也迎来了新的局面。这时,新文字的全面普及与文言一致的实现,让汉字失去了作为通用文字的地位,新的国语开始承担起通用文字的作用。
本文依据共时态理论,结合作为语言系统内部因素的文字创制原理与其他政治、历史、社会、文化等因素详细阐述了朝鲜半岛脱离汉字体系,创制出新文字的历史过程和日本只能选择假名与汉字混合体标记方法的社会背景以及字喃与汉字在越南彻底消失的原因.
第四,朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的语言文字政策与汉字相关问题。
语言文字政策对汉字的使用会产生较大的影响,本文将南北分段之后的韩国与日本为重点,考察了进入现代化时期后实施的汉字相关政策与汉字使用情况。为了日后建立期稳定而成熟的汉字使用方案,本文还对朝鲜与越南的语言文字政策做了简单的介绍。通过考察,阐明了限制使用汉字的韩国与日本,至今未能完全废除汉字的根本性原因。相对来说,在韩国负责实施语言文字政策的机关部门缺乏足够的强制力,因此汉字主张派的强烈反对,再加上与实际言语生活的乖离导致了韩国的语言文字政策缺乏一贯性,使废除汉字与并用汉字的相关政策相互交替实施的结果。日本因汉字主张派的强硬态度和新闻媒体对语言文字政策的干扰,未能废除汉字,从限制汉字慢慢走向放宽汉字使用范围,默认汉字使用的道路。
汉字受不同历史过程和文化背景以及社会环境的影响,在朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区不断被分化,通过与其他语言的接触,又相互影响,相互融合。如今,韩国与日本各自坚持使用国汉并用和混合体标记方法,越南由于语言同化现象,选择罗马字作为国语标记方法,朝鲜实施朝鲜语专用法。
本文论述的汉字本土化过程再次证明了汉字是超越语言学概念的强有力符号。朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区本使用截然不同的民族语言,汉字成为连接这些地区的媒介物。使用汉字的地区对汉字文化有着相同的认同意识,但又由于这个共性具有多元因素的特征,随着汉字在部分地区逐渐消失和使用上受到限制,以汉字为中心的共同体将面临着新的发展局面。‘东亚共同体’的概念,正是在这种背景下形成的。
东亚共同体是东亚地区新的目标,它是东南亚地区遭遇金融危机之后产生的一种崭新的构想。所谓东亚共同体,就是由东亚地区构成的新共同体,它不包括美国或澳大利亚、荷兰等地区。东亚共同体的构成员是中国、日本、韩国以及东南亚国家联盟等地区,其中中日韩等三个地区作为参与方,支持作为主导方的东南亚国家联盟。为了东亚共同体的成功建设与成熟发展,各地区要排除和克服种种困难和问题,并采取积极协作的姿势,这是至关重要的。每个地区因不同的政治、历史、经济、文化等因素的影响,处于不同的发展阶段,因此要避免因价值观和信仰以及历史观等差的异阻碍相互间协作的情况发生。
进入21世纪,充分发挥汉字内外功能的问题,已成为各界学术界的关心和瞩目的论点。日本著名的学者加藤周一参加2000年11月香港中文大学举行的‘日本与教育和日本研究’国际学术讨论会议时,以“汉字文化的再生”为主题发表演说,他指出汉字文化的再生必须将东亚共同体的建立为立足点来分析它的发展方向。
为了保证东亚共同体的成熟发展,圆满解决各地区使用的汉字问题,最终走向统一的发展方向无疑是一个最佳的选择方案,但现实生活中却很难实现这个梦想。尤其在网络信息技术如此发达的现代社会里,汉字的使用还存在着字数与字体以及编码的统一、混合体标记中汉字比例的变化等诸多问题,解决这些问题还需要很长的时间,汉字统一的可能性与否也需要通过理论与实践去反复推敲。
就最近的国内外研究动向来看,为了解决上述汉字问题,已经有很多研究成果和解决方案公布于世。例如赵述交与赵亮提供的“语文现代化理论与实践-中日韩统一汉字字形操作码”,对于中日韩三国的统一汉字编码(CJK编码)比较研究成为了很好的参考资料。该研究详细阐述汉字与编码的基本概念以及一般编码的设计原理,并着重介绍了中日韩三国的统一汉字编码(CJK编码),提高了人们对汉字编码的基本认识,同时强调了国际汉字编码问题的重要性。另外,同年中国国家语言文字工作委员会颁布的《中国语言生活绿皮书》B系列‘中日韩常用汉字对比分析’也涉及到汉字编码问题。此系列斟酌中日韩三国的‘常用汉字表’以及‘教育汉字’的颁布比‘通用多八位编码字符集’(ISO/IEC1064)早或重叠,把中日韩三国的常用汉字作为研究对象进行比较分析,其研究成果主要体现在以下两点：
第一,CJK编码得到认可后,对于简体字与繁体字、异体字以及新旧型汉字意义层次进行了补充注释；
第二,字体上有微妙的差异,但可视为同一个汉字的部分,也进行了整理。
海外研究成果有日本著名的语言学者佐藤贡悦编撰的《日中韓同字異羲小辞典》。词典以日本和中国、韩国、台湾等地区的报纸和公共设施指南、电视剧以及新闻报道等领域中使用的汉字为研究对象,进行详细的统计分析和现场调查,根据严格标准收集到使用频率最高的300字汉字以及汉字词汇,同时还对这些汉字在中日韩三国使用时的不同语义进行了详细的注释。《日中韓同字異羲小辞典》是在维持东亚各地区永久性友好关系的背景下,为了构建经济、文化等领域里的相互接触与交流而作成的。它的宗旨是建立良好的信赖关系,相互尊重和理解对方的文化根源,因此具有很高的研究价值。
人类文字的发展需要经过几个历史阶段,每个学者对文字发展的见解都有所不同。我们不能局限于某一种文字发展观判断文字的发展规律,并认为汉字落后于这个时代,它是一种非常难学的文字。这是一种极为片面,而且缺乏理论根据的想法和论点。袁晓园指出,“只有实践才是验证真理的唯一标准。表形-表义-表音为顺序的文字发展规律并不存在,因此依据这种规律形成的‘汉字落后论’或‘拉丁字母万能论’等理论是缺乏科学依据的。”还有,纯粹的语言信仰源自于为了维持本民族正统性的心理,我们要理解这种现象,但极端排斥本民族以外的外部因素,就会导致强烈的排他性,也会阻碍健全的语言生活,因此要调整好两者之间的比率。
朝鲜半岛、日本、越南等地区的汉字本土化过程与人类文明的三次高峰期-农业化、工业化、以及信息化发展过程形成相互对应关系。研究与发展信息化时代所使用的现代汉字,必须要不断发掘汉字的实用价值和现实意义,同时对比研究不同地区的汉字使用情况,改善不足点,逐步走向汉字规范化之路。
每个文化都有它的历史阶段和发展过程,同样东亚文化圈也应遵循这个原理。东亚文化圈一度崛起、发展,又由于各种经济、政治、文化等因素而处于裂变状态。而随着东亚文化圈的发展和变迁,汉字也在各地区有了不同的演变和发展。东亚文化圈与汉字是两个密不可分的存在。随着岁月的流逝,汉字在一些地区也渐渐失去了踪影。如果我们不顾一切,极端地废除或扼杀汉字应用的适当性,各地区之间的相互交流也会出现严重的‘断层现象’。为了维护共同文化圈的持续发展,东亚各地区应该客观去评价汉字的实用性和功能,为汉字今后更好的发展未来而做出最大的努力。
另外,从历史的角度去考察各地区的汉字本土化过程,发掘它们的共性和个性的问题,固然很重要。但考虑到未来不久将要形成的东亚共同体,也为了维持它的稳定发展,我们更应该彻底研究和分析汉字在各地区的政治、经济、历史以及文化等领域中承担的作用和责任,并确立出崭新的课题和解决方向。汉字是中华民族形成与发展的过程当中所创造出来的巨大文化财富,它可以客观而正确地记录人类历史与文化,同时也肩负着继承和发展灿烂文化的重要责任。因此汉字的存续和发展,必须要完全符合新文化、新语言文字的发展规律,只有这样汉字的存在价值和地位才会更加巩固和完善。
As the typical symbol of the Chinese culture, the Chinese characters has a long history of thousands years. As one of the hieroglyphic characters, the Chinese characters have been utilized and developed since long time ago in East Asia. Although the Chinese characters belong to the field of philology, as one existence of the civilization, it has close relation with the factors of history, politics and culture. In the past thousands years, taking the ancient China Central Plain as the center and the Chinese characters as the important inter-medium for spreading the culture to Korean peninsula, Japan, Vietnam and other regions around, the called East Asia Cultural Circle has emerged. Then the Chinese characters were continually developed and evolved into other characters format in other language systems of some regions. Observing the localization process of the Chinese characters in each region of East Asia has become a significantly important research subject, in order to standardize the utilization and maintain the well development of the Chinese characters,
This paper is based on the Chinese character culture and the theories of language time-space, language contact and evolution, also through observing the localization process in the regions of Korea, Japan and Vietnam, to verify the influence and mission of the Chinese characters in East Asia. There are four phases in the observation-the spread of Chinese characters, the acceptation of Chinese characters, the utilization of Chinese characters after new characters being created, and the utilization of Chinese characters in the evolution.
The Korean Peninsula (ROK and DPRK after the Korean War), Japan, Vietnam, etc. are areas that belong to the same cultural circle. They accepted advanced Chinese culture with Chinese characters as a media, marked their native languages with borrowed Chinese character, and integrated Chinese character into their native language systems. In this way, the advantages and charm of Chinese character were utilized successfully to a certain degree. Although these areas created new languages successfully, the authority of Chinese character as official character did not disappear immediately. The phenomenon of inconsistency between spoken and written languages also gave Chinese character lasted appearance in these areas. However, in the process of borrowing Chinese character, these areas realized that their own languages did not work with Chinese, which made them unable to express their ideas and ideologies perfectly. Then, the arrival of modern civilization and the pursuit of Western civilization have become the important background for Chinese character to lose its position as official character, as well as the motivation for those areas to realize the consistency between spoken and written languages. During the process of intaking Western culture in those areas, although a large Chinese vocabulary was still needed to translate foreign languages, Chinese was always perceived by them as the product of a backward country, and a language that was hard to understand.
Although today's Vietnam and DPRK have totally abandoned Chinese character in their language using and life and have created new language systems, they still use a large number of borrowed Chinese characters. Along with the development of modern economy and the acceleration of communication, the pool of borrowed Chinese character will be enlarged. In ROK, a country that has been under the influences of external forces, Chinese character is considered as external written language, and even is connected with national purism and independency. In Japan, Chinese character is always considered as part of Japanese, and the study of Chinese character, Chinese education in schools and a series of Chinese character related policies are developing in a stable and mature manner:
In order to maintain the purity of their nationality and to solve problems such as the difficulty in understanding Chinese character, ROK and Japan also consciously limit the usage of Chinese character through adoption of policies and school education. Even though, they have met all kinds of problems in this process. That is to say, although ROK has achieved not to use Chinese character as marking in their daily life, the way that using Chinese character along with the native character in the fields of marking people's names, places, road marks, etc. is still kept. The Japanese government adopted consistent Chinese character policies such as "Toyo kanjihyo"(list of Chinese characters for general use) and "Table of Chinese Character Most in Use", so that the public can still commonly use Chinese characters in their daily life.
In the process of the perfection of their own language systems, these areas adopted Chinese character marking and applying methods that fit their own language systems, so that they would not suffer from great economic damage and the imminent social chaos that may caused by abolishing Chinese character. Until today, the influence of Chinese character in these areas is of great value, and the proportion of borrowed Chinese vocabulary exceeds50%of the respective vocabularies of ROK, Japan, Vietnam and DPRK. In some vocabularies, people are unable to master the meaning of some words or the relationship between one word and its derivative if people do not know Chinese characters. The utilization of Chinese character in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam has both similarities and differences. It is fair to say that the development of Chinese character at different phases of development also varies. From the beginning of modern world to the world today, these areas have debated on "Abolishment of Chinese Character","Restriction of Chinese Character","Simplification of Chinese Character", etc. For the better development of Chinese character, it is necessary for us to make scientific and workable choices for its future.
This thesis expects to make the following points explicit:
First, exceeding the comparative studies between two countries in the past, and taking the Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam as subjects of study;
Second, although "spread" and "acceptance" are two different concepts, they are considered as the same phase or process in many studies of Chinese character. This thesis separates these two concepts as the phase that Chinese character work as foreign character and the phase that Chinese character internalize as native character respectively. This thesis will sort out the channels through which Chinese character was spread into the studied areas and to clarify the background against which Chinese character infiltrated into the social lives of these areas;
Three, although Chinese character is no longer in the language systems of Vietnam, DPRK etc., it still influences these areas to different degrees. It is necessary to refer to the character using of Vietnam and DPRK during their modernization and consult to their related character policies, so that the utilization of Chinese character, the marking methods and the coding of Chinese character can be understood more specifically;
Four, the formation of East Asia Community is an event of high profile for East Asian countries, and is represents a brand new future outlook of East Asian cultural circle. During the development of East Asia Community, the Chinese character related problems during modernization are the research subjects need to be improved and standardized. To understand the Chinese character problems in these areas is beneficial to the healthy development of East Asia Community.
This paper has seven chapters.
The1st chapter is the introduction part, including the study background and objective, relevant research trend, study rationale, method and ranges.
The2nd chapter has three parts. The1st part is the discussion about the relationship between the world character; and cultures; the2nd part is about the formation, development and the evolution in each stage of the history of the Chinese characters system; the3rd part has given the summaries for the previous relevant researches. In the conclusion part, this paper has indicated the deficiencies of previous researches and made relevant clarifications.
The3rd chapter is the discussion about the spread process of Chinese characters in East Asia. It has mainly observed on the background and what key impacts the factors of politics, history and culture has given in the spread process of Chinese characters. It's more relevant to the politics at the beginning of the spread of Chinese characters; furthermore, in order to make other region of East Asia to keep close touch with and to get further understanding of ancient China, they accepted and mastered Chinese characters to review abundant the Chinese literatures. Also, for Korea, Japan and Vietnam which did not have their own characters during that period that they all urgently needed Chinese characters to record their own languages. All above mentioned factors have promoted the development and spread of the Chinese characters in East Asia.
The4th chapter has discussed about the acceptation process of the Chinese characters in East Asia. As one symbol of the advanced Chinese culture, the Chinese characters have spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam and become popular through the ways of politics, culture and education. During this period, as one recording method, the internal functions of the Chinese characters have begun to be valued. The spread of the Chinese characters has obvious different phases. The ruling class and nobles mastered the Chinese characters and made it as the current characters in East Asia. Due to the different race and culture, when utilizing the Chinese characters to record the local languages each region has developed their own format for the acceptation of the Chinese characters. During this phase, the East Asia Culture Circle which is based on the Chinese characters, of which the generality has been reduced, but the individuality has been strengthened.
The5th chapter has discussed the utilization process of the Chinese characters after the creation of new characters. The creation of the new characters is based on the lead of modern times and establishment of modern states. With the modern times'beginning, Korea Japan and Vietnam all has promoted the localization process of the Chinese characters from imitation phase to creation of new characters. Therefore the new characters of'Hunminjeongeum','Kana'and'ZiNan'were created during this period. Following the spread of the western culture and the establishment of the modern states, the East Asia Culture Circle was nearly to collapse and have to bereconfigured. As the core factor of the culture circle, the generality of the Chinese characters in East Asia was under crisis. But at the beginning of the creation of new characters, no region of East Asia succeed to immediately make the consistence between characters and languages, that these new characters could only be utilized as one of the assisting methods. The Chinese character was still popular in the society, although it has lost its function of generality.
The6th chapter has discussed the evolution of characters and the policies of Chinese characters in each region of East Asia, which mostly identified the problems of Chinese characters and was influenced by factors of politics, economic and culture. By analyzing the glottopolitics of each region of East Asia, we will get the background and real reason for why Chinese characters could be maintained in these regions, and to identify the problems for using the Chinese characters.
The7th chapter has three parts. The1st part is the comprehensive analysis, has made a summary for each step of the localization process of the Chinese characters, listed the new points and research results of this paper. The2nd part is about the establishment of the East Asian Community and the problems of modern Chinese characters, has indicated the necessity for establishing the East Asian Community and the researching trend of the modern Chinese characters. The3rd part is the conclusion, emphasizing that we can not blindly believe the theories which lack of practicalness and scientific basis, or blindly insist the puerility of languages, but we should consider the development of the utilization of Chinese characters to standardize its utilization and maintain its well development.
Reviewing previous research on the Chinese characters, most of which are only based on the perspective of linguistics, to detect the structure and format of the Chinese characters, or to make comparison among the Chinese vocabularies. And there're only seldom researches which based on the external factors of history, politics and culture to analyze the whole development process and observe the impact of these factors to the Chinese characters. Different from previous studies, this paper is not only in the level of comparison research in the field of linguistics, but also considering the factors of history, politics and culture, and regarding the Chinese characters as one part of the formation and development of the East Asia Culture Circle. Considering many other external factors impacting the development of the Chinese characters, this paper has re-clarified its localization process in each region of the East Asia, issued queries for the previous studies and given the final answers to all these queries.
Through Chapter3to Chapter6, this thesis put emphasis on examining the localization of Chinese character and how this process was influenced by political, historical and cultural factors in the Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam. The thesis observes, as these areas belong to the some cultural circle, their Chinese character localization have similarities, as well as differences. For example, the use of phonogram has developed to a mature stage in ROK and Vietnam, while Japan still insist on using the marking method that combines phonogram and ideogram. As Masaaki Nomura pointed out, it is possible that the utilization of Chinese character is restricted to sentences centered on Chinese and no Chinese character based spoken marking system is already established are part of the reasons that the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam entered into a period with only phonogram in relatively short time. Because Japan stresses on the consistency between spoken and written languages based on Chinese character, the country till today still uses the marking system that combines phonogram and ideogram. The following is a simple summary of the discussion and conclusion of this thesis.
First, the discussion and conclusion regarding the spread of Chinese character in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam.
First of all, this thesis discussed in detail of various ideas provided by the previous literatures regarding to the deciding factors of the spread of Chinese character to Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam. This thesis concluded that the most important factor is the political needs in the exchange with ancient China, not the need in introducing advanced Chinese culture or the social needs for character.
Then, there are many other factors concerning the spread of Chinese character, such as war migration, interpretation of Chinese books, introduction of religion and introduction of Chinese feudalism. However, through analysis, this thesis concluded that it was the Chinese management system or education system spread to Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam by Chinese people that became the prerequisite for Chinese character to develop into official language in these areas. At first, Chinese character was accepted in these areas because of political needs, however, these areas themselves also tried to create a civilized society though introducing advanced Chinese culture and Chinese institutions. In the meantime, they no longer stuck into the language environment with only spoken language, and gradually made Chinese character a marking method.
Second, the discussion and conclusion regarding the acceptance of Chinese character in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam.
It is fair to say that Chinese character realized its spatial spread through external political, historical and cultural factors, thus, it cannot integrate into the internal language systems of these areas in this process. The acceptance and spread of Chinese character are two concepts, which it the reason that the author separates these two strictly. Further more, when it enters into "acceptance" phase, Chinese character still cannot develop maturely and stably in the internal language system of these areas, even when Chinese character has developed beyond the stage of being limited to politics, economy and culture. To put it in a simple way, the acceptance of Chinese character is the transition of localization. It means people in these areas who were used to use spoken language would be able to make use of the advantages of Chinese character to express their emotion and ideas to the largest degree when they have mastered the phonographic and ideographic functions of Chinese character. This is why the native characters of these areas stood out in this period. This is the natural choice when people pay attention to the internal function of Chinese character, and when Chinese gradually adapted to the development of local languages as it conflicted with the local languages.
The acceptance process of Chinese character discussed in this thesis can be divided into mainly two phases:borrowing and imitating. In the borrowing phase, Korean Peninsula and Japan paid more attention to the phonographic function of Chinese character, while Vietnam paid more attention to the ideographic function. This is also one of the deciding factors that Chinese character and word furans totally disappeared in Vietnam later. This thesis also noticed the changes of the external political, historical and cultural functions of Chinese character in the process of acceptance. During this period, the many external functions of Chinese character did not wither as the internal functions got stronger. While the ruling classes of these areas actively promoted Chinese character among the public, Chinese character's position as official character was strengthened, and the external functions were also reinforced. According the background research, this phenomenon occurred mainly because Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam created new characters in order to further deepen the localization of Chinese character, and the new character systems were still immature and unstable.
Three, the discussion and conclusion regarding the localization process of Chinese character in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam.
The aggressive wars and colonial policies of European and Japanese imperialism are usually accused as serious historical issues in the previous literatures. These actions force controlled the national consciousness and use of languages in the invaded and colonized areas. This made the East Asia cultural circle facing the crisis of falling apart, and the internalized East Asian values were denied. With the introduce of Western culture and advanced technologies, these areas realized national liberation and modernization, and established modern countries adapting to their own conditions, bringing new prospects to their character using. By this time, the universal promotion of new characters and the realization of the consistency between spoken and written languages made Chinese character no longer maintain its position as official language, while the new national languages of these areas stared to act as the official languages.
Based on the synchronic theory, combining the internal factor of language system, character creation theory, and other political, historical and social factors, this thesis illustrated the historical process of how Korean Peninsula broke away from Chinese character and created new character, the social background that Japan had to choose the marking method that combines kana and Chinese character, and the reason that word furans and Chinese character totally disappeared in Vietnam.
Four, the language policies and Chinese character related problems in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam.
As language policies have great influence on the utilization of Chinese character, this thesis focused on ROK and Japan after the Korean War and studies the Chinese character related policies adopted after the beginning of modernization and the utilization of Chinese character. In order to set up a stable and mature plan for future utilization of Chinese character, this thesis also made a brief introduction on the language polices of DPRK and Vietnam. Through study, the thesis illustrated the fundamental reasons that ROK and Japan have not entirely abolished Chinese language when they have been restricting the use of Chinese character. Relatively speaking, the ROK official departments that are in charge of carrying out language policies are lack of force, so that the strong opposition from the pro-Chinese character and the estrangement exist between the policies and the actual language life lead to the lack of consistency of ROK's language policies, and the policies of abolishing Chinese character and combining Chinese character are carried our alternatively. In Japan, the firm attitude from the pro-Chinese character and the interference of language policies from the media made Japan unable to abolish Chinese character, and the country has gone on a path that is gradually broadening the usable range of Chinese character and tacitly approving the use of Chinese character.
Influenced by different historical paths, cultural background and social environment, Chinese character has been becoming more and more different in Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam. Through engaging with other languages, Chinese character and those languages influenced each other and integrated with each other. Today, ROK and Japan insist on the marking method that combines their native character and Chinese character, Vietnam chooses Roman character as its national language marking, and DPRK uses Korean special method.
The localization of Chinese character in this thesis proves that Chinese character is a powerful symbol that works beyond a linguistic concept. Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam used to use entirely different national languages, and it was the Chinese character that linked these areas. The areas use Chinese character has the same Chinese character culture identity, and this common identity embodies the characteristic of being influenced by multiple factors. This community centered on Chinese character will be facing a new prospect as Chinese character is gradually disappearing in some areas and its utilization is being restricted. The concept of "East Asia Community" is formed against such backdrop.
The East Asia Community is the new goal in East Asia area, which is a brand new envision after the financial crisis in Southeast Asia. East Asia Community is a new community with members from East Asia, not including the USA, Australia or Netherland. The members of East Asia Community include China, Japan, ROK and ASEAN, among which China, Japan and ROK are the supporting party to support ASEAN the leading party. It is of vital importance for all the parties to overcome the difficulties and cooperate actively so that the community can enjoy a successful and mature development. Because the areas in the community are in different development stages under the influence of political, historical, economic and cultural factors, they need to avoid the cooperation being hindered by differences in values, religions and viewpoint on history.
In the21century, how to bring the internal and external functions of Chinese character into play has been a concern and focus of academic circles. The famous Japanese scholar, Shuichi Kato, made a speech on "The Revival of Chinese Character" when attending the "Japan&Education and Japanese Studies" international academic conference in November,2000. He pointed out that the development of the revival of Chinese character needs to be analyzed on the basis of the establishment of East Asia Community.
For the mature development of East Asia Community and the settle of the utilization of Chinese character, it seems that an unification is the best choice. However, this is hard to realize in real life. Especially in the modern world with advanced internet and information technology, the utilization of Chinese character still faces problems such as number, font, unified coding, the proportion of Chinese character in combined marking method, etc. To solve these problems needs a long time, and the possibility of the unification of Chinese character still needs to be tested in theory and in practice.
As to the latest studies home and abroad, there have been a number of studies and solutions trying to solve the above mentioned problem. For example,"Theory and Practice of Modernization of Chinese-The Unified Chinese Character Pattern Operation Code in China, Japan and ROK" published by Zhao Shujiao and Zhao Liang provides excellent reference for the comparative study of CJK coding. This study explicitly illustrated the basic concepts of Chinese character and its coding, and the design principle of general coding. It also introduces the CJK coding with stress, increases people's knowledge about Chinese character coding and emphasizes the importance of international Chinese character coding. The Green Book on Chinese Language Situation, series B "The Contrastive Analysis on the Generally Used Chinese Characters in China, Japan and ROK" published by China National Language and Character Working Committee also refers to Chinese character coding. This series observes that the publish of "Table of Chinese Character in General Use" and "Education of Chinese Character" is early than "ISO/IEC1064" or at the same time, and compared the generally used Chinese characters in the three countries. The following arc the main findings of the study:
First, after the CJK coding was recognized, the annotation of the significance of simplified Chinese character, traditional Chinese character, variant Chinese character is added;
Second, those Chinese characters that have subtle font differences yet can be seen as the same character were classified.
Researches and studies abroad include The Little Dictionary of Homograph in Japanese, Chinese and Korean compiled by Japanese linguistic Sato Koshi. The dictionary uses Chinese characters on the newspapers, guidance in public places, TV shows, news reports etc. in Japan, China, ROK and Taiwan as subject of study. Through detailed collection, analysis and field investigation, the dictionary recorded300Chinese characters and Chinese words of the highest frequency of use under strict standards, and annotated these characters'different meanings when they are used in China, Japan and ROK. The Little Dictionary of Homograph in Japanese, Chinese and Korean is compiled to maintain permanent friendly relationship among East Asian countries and areas, and to enhance contact and exchanges in the fields of economy and culture. Its goal is to build good relations with mutual trust, mutual respect and mutual understanding, which gives it high value of research.
The development of human characters needs to experience several phases, and each scholar has his/her unique understanding on this. We cannot estimate the law of development of a character only on the basis of its outlook on development, or judge Chinese character as a backward character and one that is very difficult to learn. This kind of view is partial, and lack of theoretical ground. As Yuan Xiaoyuan pointed out,"Practice is the only standard to test truths. The development law of configuration-ideogram-phonogram does not exist, and the arguments based on this law, such as "Chinese character is backward" and "Latin alphabet is universal" are lack of scientific proof. Also, language purism stems from the belief to maintain national purity, which is a phenomenon we need to understand. But to reject all the external factors outside the nation will lead to extreme exclusiveness, which will hinder the healthy language life. So a balanced need to be reached between the two.
The localization of Chinese character in the Korean peninsula, Japan and Vietnam mirrors the three peaks of human civilization, namely, agriculturalization, industrialization and informatization. To study and to promote the modern Chinese character used in the information age, is to unveil the practical value and significance of Chinese character ceaselessly, and to study the utilization of Chinese character in different areas comparatively, so that the shortcomings will be improved, and Chinese Character will be standardized.
Each culture has its historical phases and periods of development, and the same goes to the East Asia cultural circle. The East Asia cultural circle risen and developed, and now is in a state of falling apart because of multiple economic, political and cultural factors. Along with the development and changes of East Asia cultural circle, Chinese character also experienced different changes and development in different areas. They are two inseparable parts. As time goes, Chinese character loses its place in some areas. If we abolish Chinese character or extremely restrict its use without any further consideration, the exchanges among those areas will be severely abrupt. In order to maintain the sustainable development of this common cultural circle, the East Asian areas need to evaluate practicability and functions of Chinese character, and do their best for a better future of Chinese character.
It is of course important to study the localization of Chinese in those areas and to look for the similarities and individualities from a historical perspective. However, in consideration of the East Asia Community in the near future, and of its stable development, we need to focus more on the thorough study of the functions and responsibilities of Chinese character in the fields of politics, economy and culture in East Asia areas and to establish new subjec s of study and approaches to solutions. Chinese character is the huge cultural legacy created in the formation and development of the Chinese nation, it can record human history and culture objectively, and it shoulders the responsibility to carry on and to promote our splendid culture. Thus, the survival and development of Chinese character has to accord with the development law of new culture, new language. Only in this way, can the value and position of Chinese character be strengthened.
引文
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