比较管理的范式研究
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摘要
比较研究方法与归纳法及试验模拟方法共同构成了管理理论研究方法的主体。从研究方法适用性的角度来看,这三种方法各有优缺点。在一个相对较短的时间内,从描述研究对象的存在及运行规律的角度来看,规范法往往具有一定的优势。在一个相对短的时间内,对涉及到少量因变量和自变量且可重复的管理问题来说,试验模拟法往往具有一定的优势。在管理理论发展的早期阶段,比较研究方法只是作为其他研究方法的辅助方法被使用。应用比较研究方法的目的在于帮助研究者选择研究对象、确立问题的范围以及对影响因素权重的界定。
     然而,从泰罗开创科学管理以来,企业管理研究者和实践者已经通过管理理论研究和管理实践掌握了大量的企业管理理论,人们已经不再满足“企业管理是什么状态?”的问题,而是将关注的重点逐渐转向“企业管理为什么是这种状态?”的问题上。尤其是随着经济全球一体化程度的不断提高,各国企业管理者和企业管理研究人员开始关注不同国家企业管理效率及管理方式上的异同,研究不同企业管理模式与管理效率之间的关系,以及能否将优势企业的管理方式移植到劣势企业上。对第一个问题的回答涉及到一个有着较长时间跨度的企业管理史的问题,对第二个问题的回答涉及到一个系统性的问题,对第三个问题的回答涉及到企业管理与企业环境关系的问题。从企业管理实际运行的角度来看,企业管理运行有着系统性、持续动态性、有机性和企业环境嵌植性四个主要特征。企业管理的系统性特征是指企业管理及企业管理的对象都是一个完整的整体,其构成部分之间及各个构成部分与整体之间存在复杂的互动关系,它们当中的任何一个关系所具有的规律性特征都不是单纯地由表面因果双方来决定的,而是有着更深层次的整体性需要和决定。企业管理的持续动态性特征是指企业管理没有所谓的均衡态,企业管理永远是处于动态之中。如果研究者在一定时间内,经过观察后发现企业管理没有出现较大的变化,那么,这仅仅是暂时现象,是管理者的思想和行为处于短暂的“平衡”状态。此时惯例化行为和惯例化关系构成了企业管理现象的所有内容,企业暂时没有出现非惯例化行为和非惯例化关系。有机性特征是指企业管理具有所有有机生命体的一切特征,例如偶发性特征、伴生性特征、自组织特征等。不能用原子的、机械的观点来对企业管理行为和特征进行拆分和定义,这个道理正如柏拉图所说的“离开身体的一只手不是手”的观点是一样的。企业内部的关系和行为不是机械部件之间的关系和运动,不具有精确的、可计量的、单纯的因果关系。企业内部的关系和行为之间不但具有一定的自由度,而且还具有相当多的基于意义解释的变化内容和表现形式。企业环境嵌植性特征是指企业是由其所在环境建构的,企业是企业环境构成的一个部分,单纯的企业,或单纯的企业环境都无法代表企业与企业环境之间的这种关系。只有通过对企业与企业环境之间的互动关系进行考察,才能够从根本上探索企业各种行为特征的成因。
     所以,从企业管理研究者和企业管理实践者的期望出发,并结合企业所具有的这些特征来看,只有比较研究方法能够满足目前管理理论界和企业界的这种要求。因此,开展以比较研究方法为主,以其他研究方法为辅的企业管理研究是势在必行的。这不但是随着管理理论研究发展企业管理知识积累已经达到一定程度而出现的学科知识整理的需要,也是随着全球经济一体化程度的提高而导致企业进行全球性竞争的需要。为此,构建一个能够指导研究者进行跨国比较的研究范式成为管理学界最为迫切的事情。虽然有学者为此做出了巨大贡献,然而,这些学者所构建的比较管理研究范式并没有从根本上涵盖企业所具有的系统性、持续动态性、有机性和企业环境嵌植性四个主要特征。为此,本文将企业视为一个开放的、复杂的且具有主动适应性的有机系统,从演化的视角出发,以企业与企业环境之间的互动关系作为比较研究目标,来构建一个完整的比较分析框架。主要工作如下:
     ⑴企业管理的定义。以往的管理定义有其特定的时代背景和研究方法的印记,是针对“企业管理是什么状态?”这个问题而构建的。在新时代背景下,企业管理的定义同样要有利于回答“企业管理为什么是这个状态?”这个问题。在对相关文献进行研究后,本文将企业管理定义为:为谋求在市场中顺利进行价值交换而对价值创造和交换过程中的相关行动与关系进行统一规划、设计及执行的开放系统。有管理理念、管理原则、管理系统、现场经验与技术四种表现形式。并在此基础上,分析了比较管理的学科性质、理论层面、研究范围、界定研究对象的标准、研究对象的界定以及企业与环境关系的本质、企业与环境关系的特征等问题。并以此为基础,从系统性视角出发构建了比较管理员分析框架。
     ⑵比较管理分析框架。对企业与企业环境之间的系统性互动关系进行了分析,提出了“企业组织理性”概念,认为“企业组织理性”与企业环境之间的互动是企业与企业环境互动的首要特征,并认为“企业组织理性”通过对企业环境的认知来驱动企业组织结构和企业行为来与企业环境进行互动。
     ⑶企业与企业环境的关系。对情境、情景、环境、背景的概念进行了梳理,提出了“企业环境”概念,根据“企业环境”对企业的塑造性影响、“企业环境”变化对企业及管理的影响,以及部分企业管理任务的内容,将那些直接影响企业价值创造和交换过程的外部社会性因素定义为“企业环境”,并将“企业环境”分为规制性要素、规范性要素和文化认知性要素三个成分。由于企业嵌植在“企业环境”当中,所以企业同样是由这三种基础要素构建而成,并以这三种基础要素作为分析成分去分析“企业环境”和企业组织共同演化的动力和途径。有针对性地提出比较管理的始基性概念,即“本源性管理”、“建构性管理”和“适应性管理”概念,为比较管理研究构建了中轴线,并对企业环境对企业组织及管理的三种影响进行了详细考察。
     ⑷企业组织理性。对理性的存在基础、理性的研究视角、理性的存在形式及本质进行了分析,认为理性的本质是社会建构地,理性的存在形式是混合的且不断演化的。理性是人类行动主体与行动客体之间惟一具有反思性的联系,除去这个惟一具有反思性的联系,人类理性即失去出现的基础和意义。在此基础上,对“企业组织理性”概念进行了详细的分析,提出价值理性、技术理性和经济理性是“企业组织理性”的构成成分。从演化的视角提出企业组织理性与企业环境共同演化的三个阶段:突变、混沌和分叉,同时认为技术理性、经济理性和价值理性分别是企业与企业环境共同演化过程中的“固定吸引子”、“周期吸引子”和“混沌吸引子”,并从“企业组织理性”角度,将企业组织理性的演化方式界定为强制、规范和模仿三种。
     ⑸企业组织结构。经过研究后认为组织结构的本质是一个有秩序的关系系统,组织结构是人类劳动过程中人与人之间关系的体现,而有秩序的人类行动是组织结构存在的基础。所以,在组织结构的研究中,应该将组织视为一个有机系统,在开放的系统性视角下,用基本的手段-目的链节作为分析单位来分析组织理性与组织环境的关系、组织结构与手段-目的链的关系、组织结构与个体理性的关系,这样不但可以发现企业组织结构中包含“理想型组织结构”、“建构型结构”和“适应性结构”,而且可以发现企业组织结构与企业环境共同演化过程中,企业组织结构的趋同和趋异同时发生的根本原因。
     ⑹企业组织行为。通过研究一般性组织行为的本质和存在基础后认为,组织行为的本质是一个有秩序的、持续性过程。组织行为的有序性来自组织理性所给予的逻辑性,而组织行为的持续性则来自组织理性的有限性。组织行为的存在基础是组织能力,组织能力不但能够将组织整体任务进行恰当的细分,而且能够为细分后形成的任务系统进行合理的能力分配。在此基础上,将企业能力依次分成组织认知能力、规划能力、建构能力、协调能力和解构能力五种。认为这五种组织能力不但是企业的“基础性行为”、“建构性行为”和“适应性行为”的基础,而且反映了企业应对风险和不确定性的所有行为过程。由于不同国家拥有不同的规制性要素、规范性要素和文化认知性要素,导致不同国家的企业拥有不同的认知能力,并进而导致不同国家的企业拥有不同的“企业组织共识”和“企业组织箴言”。这些不同的“企业组织共识”和“企业组织箴言”使不同国家的企业拥有不同的管理信念和原则,并最终导致不同国家的企业拥有不同的认知、规划、建构、协调和解构的能力和内容,这些不同能力及内容是不同国家企业在处理专业化、组织化、制度化、以及稳定性和灵活性问题时有不同行为表现的首要原因。并从根本上决定了哪些企业行为可以移植。
The comparative research method、inductive method and the experimental simulationmethod constitute the main research methods of management theory. From the the point ofview on applicability, these three methods have advantages and disadvantages. In arelatively short period of time, for the description of the existence and operation rules onthe object, normative method has certain advantages; for the repeatable managementissures with a small amount variables, experimental simulation method has certainadvantages. In the early stage of management theory, comparative research method isused as an auxiliary method of the other methods. Using comparative study method aims tohelp researchers choose the object of research, defining the range of influence on thedefinition and the factor weight.
     However, since the start of scientific management, researchers have found a greatdeal of enterprise management theory through theory research and practice, the focus ofresearch changed from "what is this" to "Why is this". With the continuous improvement ofthe global economic integration, enterprise managers of various countries and enterprisemanagement researchers have begun to focus on the similarities and differences betweenthe national enterprise management efficiency and management methods;on the study ofthe relationship between efficiency, management mode and different enterprises;andwhether the advantages of enterprise management could be thansfer into inferiorenterprises. The answer to the first question relates to a long span of time managementproblem of the history, the answer to the second question relates to a systemic problem, theanswer to the third question relates to enterprise management and corporate environmentalproblems. From the view of enterprise management, enterprise management system hasfour main features: systematic, continuous dynamic, organic and enterprise environmentembedded. The systematic of enterprise management refers to the object of enterprisemanagement and enterprise management is a whole, there is a complicated relationshipbetween the part and the whole, of any relationship of them has the characteristics are notsimply determined by the surface of both sides, but there are deeper needs and determine.The continuous dynamic of enterprise refers to no equilibrium, enterprise management isalways in a dynamic. In a certain period of time, If researchers observe that enterprisemanagement does not appear bigger change, this is only a temporary phenomenon, this isthe thought and behavior of the manager in the short "balance". This practice behavior andpractices of the relationship organize the contents of enterprise management phenomenon, enterprises do not have unconventional behavior and non institutionalized relationship. Theorganic refers to enterprise management has all the characteristics of organic life, such asthe occasional feature, associated features, self organizing feature etc.. The relationship andmovement between the enterprise internal relation is not same as the mechanicalcomponents. Between the internal relation and behavior not only has a certain degree offreedom, but also has significance in explaining the variation in content and form on thebasis of considerable.The embedded feature is refers to the enterprise is constructed by theenvironment, the enterprise is a part of the enterprise environment, the enterprise, or theenterprise environment cannot represent the relationship between the enterprise andenterprise environment. Only through the interactive relationship between the enterpriseand enterprise environmental inspection, causes of various behavior of enterprise featurescould be explored fundamentally.
     From the point of view of enterprise management and enterprise managementexpectations, and the combination of these characteristics of enterprises with the view, onlythe comparative research method can meet the current management theorists and businessrequirements. Therefore, carrying out the comparative research method is not only theneeds of management knowledge, but also the practical needs of management. Therefore,the research paradigm which can guide researchers international comparative managementscience of become the most urgent things. Although scholars have made greatcontribution.However, comparative management research paradigm of these scholars havenot fundamentally covers enterprises with systematic, continuous dynamic, organic andenterprise environment embedded. This dissertation view the enterprise as an open,complex and active adaptability of organic system, starting from the evolutionaryperspective, the interactive relationship between the enterprise and enterprise environmentas research target, to construct a complete comparative analysis framework. The mainwork is as follows:
     The definition of enterprise manaement. Management definition has its specificbackground and research methods of imprinting.In the new era background, definition ofthe enterprise management should help to answer " why is this ". In the study of relatedliterature, the enterprise management should be defined as: open system for the relevantaction for smoothly in the market value of exchange of value creation and exchangeprocess and relationship of design and implementation of unified planning, There are fourforms: management philosophy, management principle, management system, fieldexperience and technology. And on this basis, analyzed the management of the nature of the subject, the theoretical level, the scope of the study, defines the research object, thestandard definition of the research object and the relationship between business andenvironment, the essence of the relationship between business and environmentcharacteristics. And on this basis, starting from the system perspective to construct aadministrator analysis framework.
     Comparison of manaement analysis framework. On the system of the interactiverelationship between enterprise and environment were analyzed, put forward the concept of"enterprise organizational rationality", think "the interaction between the enterpriseorganizational rationality" and the business environment is the primary feature interactionbetween enterprise and enterprise environment, and that the "enterprise organizationalrationality" through to the enterprise environment cognition to drive the enterpriseorganization structure and the enterprise behavior and enterprise environmental interaction.
     The relationship between enterprise and enterprise environment. On the context,situation, environment, the background of the concept of carding, proposed "the enterpriseenvironment" concept ", according to the business environment of enterprises","shapinginfluence enterprise environment" changes to the enterprise and management, as well aspart of the enterprise management tasks, the definition of the external social factors thatdirectly influence the enterprise value creation and the exchange process as "businessenvironment", and "business environment" is divided into standard regulatory elements,elements and cultural cognitive elements of the three components. Because the enterpriseembedded in the "business environment", so the enterprise also is by the three basicelements to construct, and with the three basic elements as the driving force and the way ofcommon evolution analysis "business environment" and enterprise organization. Thecomparison of management of primordial concept, namely "original management","construction management" and "adaptive management" concept, to compare themanagement research on the construction of the central axis, and the enterpriseenvironment on the effect of three kinds of enterprise organization and management wereinvestigated in detail.
     The enterprise organizational rationality. The reason foundation, rational perspective,rational existence form and nature is analyzed, rational is the essence of social construction,rational existence form is mixed and evolving. Rationality is the only between subject andobject of human action action with reflective connection, remove the only has a reflectiverelation, human reason is the basis and significance of the lost. On this basis, the conceptof "enterprise organizational rationality" in detail, put forward the value rationality, technological rationality and economic rationality is "components of organizationalrationality". The three stage of organizational rationality and enterprise environment fromthe evolutionary perspective of co evolution: mutation, chaos and bifurcation, at the sametime that the technical rationality, economic rationality and value rationality are theenterprise and enterprise environmental co evolution process of "fixed attractor","attractor"and "chaos", and from "enterprise organizational rationality" point of view, the evolution ofenterprise organization mode is defined as three modes:the force, rational norms andimitate.
     The organizational structure of enterprises. Through research that the nature oforganizational structure is an orderly system, organization structure is the embodiment ofthe relationship between man and man in the process of human labor, and order of humanaction is the basic organizational structure existence. Therefore, in the study of tissuestructure, should be regarded as an organic system, in the system from the perspective ofthe opening up, with the basic means end chain as a unit of analysis to analyze theorganizational rationality and the organizational environment, organizational structure andmeans end chain relationship, organization structure and individual rational relation so, notonly can find the enterprise organization structure contains the "ideal type of organizationstructure","building structure" and "adaptive", but also can find common evolution of theorganizational structure of enterprises and enterprise environment process, the fundamentalreason of enterprise organizational structure of the convergence and divergence occurred atthe same time.
     The behavior of enterprises. The nature of the general organizational behavior andexistence basis of that nature, organization behavior is an orderly, continuous process.Logical and orderly organization behavior from the organization reason given, andpersistent in organizational behavior from the limitation of organization reason.Organizational behavior is the basis of the existing organization ability, organization abilitycan not only will organize the whole task appropriate subdivision, and the tasks of thesystem can be formed into after the breakdown of the capacity allocation. On this basis, theenterprise ability is divided into five kinds: organizational cognitive ability, planningability, construction ability, coordination ability and capacity of deconstruction. Think thatthese five kinds of organizational ability is not only the enterprise "the basic behavior","constructive behavior" and "adaptability" basis, but also reflects the business risk and allbehavior uncertainty. Since different countries have different regulatory elements, thenormative elements and cultural cognitive elements associated with cognitive ability, different enterprises in different countries, and thus lead to enterprises in differentcountries have different "organizational consensus" and "enterprise organization". Thesedifferent "organizational consensus" and "enterprise motto" so that different countries havedifferent beliefs and principles of enterprise management, and ultimately lead toenterprises in different countries have different cognitive, planning, construction anddeconstruction, coordination ability and content, these different abilities and content is theprimary cause of enterprises in different countries have different behavior in dealing withspecialization, organization, institution, and the problems of stability and flexibility. Andfundamentally determines which enterprise behavior can be transplanted.
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