摘要
目前,我国正处于既强烈要求发展经济又迫切需要保护生态环境的关键时期。虽然政府为实现保护环境的目标付出了艰巨努力,动用公共财政恢复生态的各项工程举世瞩目,但粗放的经济增长方式使得资源利用效率低,环境本身亦存在破坏容易、恢复难的特点,即使有了退耕还林、退耕还草、退耕还湖等生态补偿的实践,然而生态补偿的理论研究还是落后于可持续发展战略实施的紧迫需要。尤其在自然生态保护或区域生态环境保护方面,面临着政策结构性缺位的挑战,相关的环境经济政策严重短缺,无法解决诸如国家重要生态功能区、流域和矿产资源开发等领域的生态环境保护问题,从而在经济社会快速发展的同时,付出了环境污染和生态恶化的沉重代价。生态补偿是运用经济手段保护生态环境的重要措施,旨在从源头上调控各个利益群体之间的经济利益关系,合理分配自然环境资源,指引人们自觉合理地利用和保护生态环境,实现我国经济社会发展与生态环境保护的双赢。目前,我国的生态补偿工作还没有形成适合于不同层次和类型的生态补偿制度。鉴于此,本论文以国家生态补偿机制的建构和完善为研究对象,界定和分析生态补偿机制的内涵和主要经济学理论基础,并对国内外生态补偿实践和相关政策进行实证研究,融汇经济学、资源科学、环境科学、生态学、管理学、法学等多门学科的理论,从理论上为我国建立、健全国家生态补偿机制提出一些建议,指导下一步的实践工作。
文章通过研究得出的基本结论是：(1)现有的研究和探索实践为回答“什么是生态补偿机制?为什么要建立生态补偿机制?怎样建立生态补偿机制?”这三个问题准备了良好的基础,但尚未达到较系统和较科学的程度,与国家的相关决策需要仍有较大距离。(2)生态补偿机制是调整相关主体的环境及其经济利益的分配关系,内化相关活动的外部成本,恢复、维护和改善生态系统功能的一种制度安排。生态补偿机制的基本要素是确定的,应当包括生态补偿原则、补偿主体、补偿客体、补偿对象、补偿标准、补偿运行机制、补偿途径和补偿保障机制,另外还涉及到补偿机制运行效果的评价、补偿机制的完善与创新等。(3)我国的生态补偿政策在经历了孕育、试点探讨和逐步推广后,正在走向完善,但从目前生态补偿的具体实践来看,尚未建立一套相对完整的生态补偿政策体系,并且缺乏专门性的政策工具。(4)生态补偿机制是一项非常复杂的制度安排,国家应建立一个具有战略性、全局性和前瞻性的总体框架。根据国内外生态补偿机制的理论研究与实践运行情况,构建一个完整的生态补偿机制体系必须综合考虑这一机制的总体部署、基本特征、基本要素、基本框架、运行效果评价以及机制完善等因素,这也是生态补偿机制构建的基本要求。(5)生态补偿机制本身是一个复杂的综合的运行体系,需要多学科、多部门的相互配合,更需要其他政策的支持与保障。因此,在设计与完善国家生态补偿机制过程中,要特别重视其与经济、管理、法律和社会政策的内在关系,做好生态补偿机制与它们的结合,构建完整的生态补偿保障制度体系。(6)流域、农业、重要生态功能区、矿产资源开发、森林等不同的生态补偿领域都有其区别于其他补偿领域的基本特征,这就要求在相应的生态补偿机制设计中必须充分考虑这种生态补偿领域现实存在的差异化因素,以设计出最切合实际需要的生态补偿机制,保证达到理想的生态补偿效果。
文章提出的创新观点包括：(1)提出生态补偿政策应是对现有环境政策的完善和补充,因此我国生态补偿的外延应是自然生态保护(与建设)领域。(2)从国家角度出发,设计我国建立国家生态补偿机制的总体框架,旨在为国家的相关决策发挥一个路线图的作用。由于国家生态补偿是由中央政府直接或间接参与,对生态影响跨省市乃至跨国的经济社会活动进行的补偿,补偿问题牵扯到许多部门和地区,具有不同的补偿类型、补偿主体、补偿内容和补偿方式,因此所建立的国家生态补偿机制具有战略性、全局性和前瞻性的特点,针对各个尺度上的问题能够综合利用法律、政府和市场手段,建立多层次的补偿系统。(3)提出建立统一与多元化相结合的生态补偿管理体制模式。这一模式包括：一是建立中央层次的国家生态补偿管理机构,在国务院的统一领导下成立生态补偿管理委员会,在全国范围内行使生态补偿管理权,对我国生态补偿实行统一管理；二是在地方政府下设立行政区域政府生态补偿管理机构,把林业、水利、国土资源等职能部门以及生态效应生产地政府、受益地政府纳入一个平台进行协商,使各级政府、各部门能够齐心协力使生态补偿机制走向可持续发展；三是按级别设立各级基层生态补偿管理机构,在所管辖的范围内对生态补偿进行决策和管理。
Now our country calls on both economy development and ecology protection.The Chinese government has paid arduous effort to attain elegant mountains and river's object, and the project is attracting worldwide attention that various employing public property to restore forest. But feasible efficiency of using resources of extensive mode in economic growth is low, and environment itself also has a character that it being easily destroying, difficult restoring. Even if we have had the eco-compensation practice such as withdrawing from plugging returning to forestry, returning back to grass, returning back to lake, eco-compensation theory studies could not satisfy the want of implementing the strategy of ever- lasting development. Especially in the field of natural ecology protection or protection of area ecological environment, we are being confronted with the challenge of policy structure vacancy, grave shortage of pertinent environment economic policy, so that we have no way to solve the problem of eco-protection in such fields development as important country ecology function area, river basin and mineral resources. Thereby at the same time that society develops rapidly in economy, we pay heavy price for the environmental pollution and ecology worsening. Eco-compensation mechanism is the important measure applying an economic means to preserve the ecological environment, it is also the strategy being that our country realizes economic and social development and protection of ecological environment win-win chooses. While the Eco-compensation study and practice of our country just breaks the ice, it does not form the system that can be suitable in different arrangement of ideas and type. And the thesis has taken it as the object of study that how to buildup and perfects the eco-compensation, analyses the connotation and the economic theory foundation, also, the positive study and demonstration has been made on the practice and relevance policy in home and abroad. At last it melts or converge lots of disciplines theory, such as Economics, Resource science, Environmental science, Ecology, Principles of Management, Science of Law etc, and submitted countermeasure and suggestion on the fundamental frame of how to structure and perfect eco- compensation mechanism of our country.
The article reaches the basic conclusions by studying:(1) "what is eco-compensation? Why and how to buildup the eco-compensation mechanism"? These questions must be primarily, and scientifically system answered when we want to work out eco-compensation policy and to build the mechanism.Now available research and exploration practice have prepare the fine basis for answering these fundamental problems, but not yet reach comparatively system and science degree that still have bigger distance satisfying the needs of the relevance decision-making by the country. (2) Eco-compensation mechanism adjusts the environment of the relevance main body and their economy benefit relations of income distribution, inners relevance spends flexible outside cost, and it is one kind of system arrangements that restoring, defending and improving ecology's system function. Eco-compensation mechanism is a very complicated system arrangement. Whose basic key element is to ascertain that ought to include compensating principle, compensating the main body, compensating an object, compensating partner, compensating approach, compensating network, compensating standard, compensating way and so on, whereas it wants to deal with compensating guarantee mechanism, compensating mechanism the valuation running effect, compensating improving and perfecting and so on. (3) After having experienced the inoculation, experimental unit investigation and discussion and gradual popularization, the eco-compensation policy of our country has effect on relieving an ecological environment arriving at the certain effect, but from the view of concrete practice of compensation at present, we do not build a set of relatively entire mechanism, and be short of specialty nature policy instrument. Under the circumstances that we scientifically develop, build new eco-civilized and harmonious society in an all-round way, at present our country rectifies in best period for building eco-compensation mechanism, also various conditions is already basically mature. Building eco-compensation mechanism is one long range, complicated job but, we must unceasingly, study and use good home and abroad experience and way for reference, probes the successful way being suitable to our country ecological environment and social development. (4) Eco-compensation mechanism is a very complicated system arrangement. According to the home and abroad fact of theory studies and operation carried out, when we want to build a wholly mechanism system, we should entirely take it into consideration that this mechanism essential features, mechanism formation, estimation on the effect put into practice, as well as mechanism perfection. (5) estimation on the effect put into practice structures a indispensable important link of entire system of building mechanism. The key of effect estimation lies in that we knowing the overall operation state and policy achievement effect, and it could provide experienced reference for going a further step on the compensation mechanism perfection. Concrete method is that the law estimating during the front and back compares with the law of cost-beneficial in the policy estimation method, mutuality by the fact contrasting with what front and back gains beneficial result during policy put into practice, so penetrating quantitative valuation policy is put into effect. (6) River basin, agriculture, natural development zone, mineral development of natural resources, forest etc. all has personal differentiate in the essential features with each other, so we should consider the difference-relation factor that exists in the compensation field reality, even that we can design a mechanism which mostly suit the actual condition of needs, and swear to reach ideal compensation effect.
The viewpoint includes following brought forward by article:(1) the article demonstrates the mechanism essential features clearly, designs the mechanism responsibility-deciding mechanism, compensating range mechanism, compensating standard ascertaining, compensating way choice mechanism, and compensating system guarantee mechanism, and it arrives at the conclusion the mechanism construction be one synthetically process, and we ought to put effect of compensation into scientifically valuation, and unceasingly come true mechanism development perfect and be innovative. (2) The article has structured index system that appraising eco-compensation effect, which has been used in analyzing the mechanism operational state and efficiency put into practice in order to discover problems among them. By that the actual reference and basis could be provided in the future for the mechanism optimization and various index of relevance development adjustment. Concrete method is that the law estimating that the front and back compares with the law of cost-beneficial in the policy estimation method, mutuality by the fact contrasting with what policy puts front and back gains beneficial result into practice, so penetrating quantitative valuation policy is put into effect. (3)Under the overall target of institutional innovation idea and value chasing in compensation, abiding by the principles of innovation, the article has submitted countermeasure and suggestion on how to perfect responsibility mechanism, range, standard, operation way, and ensure system, and expects to realize eco-compensation mechanism development evolution and improve oneself unceasingly, so that we can reach the comprehensive ecological improvement and the policy target.
引文
[1]中国21世纪议程管理中心可持续发展战略研究组.生态补偿：国际经验与中国实践[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007.6-11
[2]尚路时.资源开发的生态补偿——一个不容回避的话题[J].中国发展观察,2005(6)：27
[3]任勇,冯东方,俞海.中国生态补偿理论与政策框架设计[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2008.2-88
[4]杨艳琳.自然资源价值论——劳动价值论角度的解释及其意义[J].经济评论,2002(1)：17-19
[5]中国21世纪议程管理中心可持续发展战略研究组.发展的基础：中国可持续发展的资源、生态基础评价[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2004.117
[6]戴星翼,俞后未,董梅.生态服务的价值实现[M].北京：科学出版社,2005.231
[7]Loomis,J.B. Assessing Wildlife and environmental Values in cost benefit analysis:state of art[J].Journal of Environmental Management,1986(2):129-134
[8]Pearce,D. and Turner,K.Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment[J].New York: Harvester Wheat sheaf,1990(6):45-49
[9]Cuperas J.B. Assessing Wildlife and environmental Values in cost benefit analysis:state of art[J].Journal of Environmental Management,1996(2):8-16
[10]Drechsler,K.,Johst. D. Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment [J].New York: Harvester Wheat sheaf,1990(12):39-42
[11]Lofo Resources Focus. Financing environmental services:the Costa Rican experience and its implications [J].The Science of the Total Environment,1999.157-169
[12]章铮.生态环境补偿费的若干基本问题[A].国家环境保护局自然保护司编.中国生态环境补偿费的理论与实践[C].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1995.81-87
[13]庄国泰等.生态环境补偿费的理论与实践[A].国家环境保护局自然保护司编.中国生态环境补偿费的理论与实践[C].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1995.88-98
[14]叶文虎,魏斌,仝川.城市生态补偿能力衡量和应用[J].中国环境科学,1998,18(4)：298-301
[15]洪尚群,马丕京,郭慧光.生态补偿制度的探索[J].环境科学与技术,2001(5)：40-43
[16]毛显强,钟瑜,张胜.生态补偿的理论探讨[J].中国人口·资源与环境,2002,12(4)：38-41
[17]吕忠梅.超越与保守—可持续发展视野下的环境法创新[M].北京：法律出版社,2003
[18]王钦敏.建立补偿机制,保护生态环境[J].求是,2004(13)：55-56
[19]庄国泰,高鹏,王学军.中国生态环境补偿费的理论与实践[J].中国环境科学,1995(6)：413-418
[20][美]加勒特·哈丁著.兴翼,张真译.生活在极限之内——生态学、经济和人口禁忌[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2001.9
[21]Samuelson,P.A. The pure Theory of Public expenditure,The Review of Economics and Statistics[J].The Review of Economics and statistics.1955(11):42-53
[22][美]庇古.福利经济学(英文版)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1999.341
[23]范金,周忠民,包振强.生态资本综述[J].预测,2000(5)：79-80
[24]俞海,任勇.流域生态补偿机制的关键问题分析——以南水北调中线水源涵养区为例[J].资源科学,2007,29(2)：28-33
[25]Kosoy N,Martinez-Tuna M,Muradian R,Martinez- Alier J. Payments for environmental services in water sheds:Insights from a comparative study of three cases in Central America [J]. Ecological Economics.2006(8):196-201
[26]粟晏,赖庆奎等.国外社区参与生态补偿的实践及经验[J].林业与社会,2005,13(4)：40-44
[27]Bienabe E, Hearne R R. Public preferences for biodiversity conservation and scenic beauty with in a framework of environmental services payments[J].Forest Policy and Economics,2006(9):335-348
[28]Moran D,Mc Vittie A,Allcroft DJ,etal. Quantifying public preferences for agri-environmental policy in Scotland:a comparison of methods [J].Ecological Economics,2007,63(1):42-53
[29]Johst K, Drechsler M,Watzold F. An ecological-economic modeling procedure to design compensation payments for the efficient spat ion-temporal allocation of species protection measures[J]. Ecological Economics,2002(41):37-49
[30]郑海霞,张陆彪.流域生态服务补偿定量标准研究[J].环境保护,2006(1)：42-46
[31]金蓉,石培基,王雪平.黑河流域生态补偿机制及效益评估研究[J].人民黄河,2005,27(7)：4-7
[32]万本太,邹首民.走向实践的生态补偿——案例分析与实践探索[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社.2008.10.2-7
[33]万军,张惠远,王金南,葛察忠等.中国生态补偿政策评估与框架初探[J].环境科学研究,2005,18(2)：1-8
[34]支玲,李怒云,王娟,孔繁斌.西部退耕还林经济补偿机制研究[J].林业科学,2004,40(2)：3-9
[35]杜万平.完善西部区域生态补偿机制的建议[J].中国人口·资源与环境,2001,(3)：119-120
[36]夏峰,洪尚群,叶文虎.云南水电生态化的生态补偿[J].人民黄河,2005,36(2)：32-34.
[37]吴学灿,洪尚群,吴晓青.生态补偿与生态购买[J].环境科学与技术,2006(1)：113-116.
[38]毛锋,曾香.生态补偿的机理与准则[J].生态学报,2006,26(11)：3841-3846
[39]Morris,M.o. Integrating local ecological services into intergovernmental fiscal transfers:The case of the ecological ICMS in East England Land Use Policy[J]. Ecological Economics,2006(25):485-497
[40]Alix-Garcia J, de Janvry A, Sadoulet E. The Role of Risk in Targeting Payments for Environmental Services [EB/OL], are. Berkeley.edu/-sadoulet/papers/PES simulations-8-05.pd.f
[41]Wunder S. Payments for environmental services:Some nuts and bolts [J].CIFOR Occasional Paper No.42,2005:3-8
[42]Sierra R, Russman E. On the efficiency of environmental service payments:A forest conservation assessment in the Os a Peninsula, Costa Rica[J].Ecological Economics,2006(59):131-141.
[43]Herzog F, Dreier S, Hofer G, etal. Effect of ecological compensation areas on floristic and breeding bird diversity in Swiss agricultural land scapes[J].Agriculture.EcosystemsandEnvironment,2005(108):189-204.
[44]Dietschia R. Public preferences for biodiversity conservation and scenic beauty with in a framework of environmental services payments[J].Forest Policy and Economics,2006(9):335-348.
[45]Zbinden S, Lee DR.Paying for Environmental Services:An Analysis Of Participation in Costa Rica sips A Program[J].World Development,2005,33(2):255-272
[46]Kosoy N, Martinez-Tuna M, Muradian R, Martinez-Alier J. Payments for environmental services in watersheds:Insights from a comparative study of three cases in Central America [J]. Ecological Economics,2007(10):51-62.
[47]俞慧友,徐兰山.CDM“馅儿饼”：我们如何品尝?——清洁发展机制为我国带来的可持续发展机遇和思考[EB/OL].科技日报网,http://www.stdaily.com/gb/stdaily/2006-03/24/content_502359.htm.
[48]刘明远,郑奋田.论政府包办型生态建设补偿机制的低效性成因及应对策略[J].生态经济,2006(2)：81-84
[49]厉以宁.环境经济学[M].北京：中国发展出版社,2002,46
[50]谢剑斌.补偿途径多样化是生态补偿基础和保障[J].环境科学与技术,2001,24(增)：40-42
[51]Samuelson,P.A. The pure Theory of Public expenditure,The Review of Economics and Statistics[J].The Review of Economics and statistics.1955(11):42-53
[52]Douglass.C.North and Robert.P.Thpmas. The rise of the West World[M].Cambridge University Press.1973.147
[53]沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2001.49
[54][美]保罗·A·萨缪尔森,威廉·D·诺德豪斯著,杜月升等译.经济学(第12版)[M].北京：中国发展出版社,1992：1203-1207.
[55][美]R.科斯.社会成本问题[A].财产权利与制度变迁[M].上海：上海三联书店.1991.312
[56]Natasha Landell-Mills and Ina T. Porras.Silver bullet or fools'gold:A globe review of markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor[J].2002-IIED,126-127,http://www.iied.org/pubs
[57]James M.Buchanan.An Economic Theory of Clubs[J].Economics.32(Febuary),1965.147-154
[58]刘宇飞.公共产品供给问题经济学分析(博士论文)[D].北京大学图书馆藏,1999.43
[59]牛新国,杨贵生,刘志健,高扬.生态资本化与资本生态化[J].经济论坛,2003(3)：49-53
[60]刘玉龙.生态补偿与流域生态共建共享[M].北京：中国水利水电出版社,2007,16
[61]侯凤岐.生态资源价值补偿机制研究[D].西北大学人口、资源与环境经济学博士学位论文2008,63-65
[62]Natasha Landell-Mills and Ina T. Porras.Silver bullet or fools'gold :A globe review of markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor[J].2002-IIED,126-127,http://www.iied.org/pubs
[63]Hardi P, Barg S, Hodge T,e tal. Measuring sustainable development:Review of current practice [R].Occasional paper,1997(17):1-2,49-51
[64]徐中民,张志强,程国栋.甘肃省1998年生态足迹计算与分析[J].地理学报,2000,55(5)：607-616
[65]Bulas J M. Implementing Cost Recovery for Environmental Services in Mexico[J].Paper presented at World Bank Water Week, Washington, DC,2004,February:24-26
[66]Drechsler M, Watzold F. The importance of economic costs in the development of guidelines for spatial conservation management[J].Biological conservation.2001 (97):51-59
[67]国家环境保护总局环境规划院(现环境保护部环境规划院).国家十五科技攻关课题之“生态补偿机制研究”专题报告《生态补偿机制与政策方案研究》(A).2005,12：13-14
[68]FON A F IFO.E.I Desarrollo del System a de Pagio de Services Am biennales en Costa Rica San JoseCosta Rica[J].Fonda National de Financial lento Forestall(FON A F IFO) 2000.147-153
[69]Pagiola S. Paying for water services in Central America:learning from Costa Rica. InS. Pagiola,J.Bishop,N.Landell-Millseds. Selling Forest Environmental Services:Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development.London[J].UK:Earthscan,2002.245-262
[70]Cuperus,R.,K.J.Canters, A.A.G.Piepers. Ecological compensation of the impacts of a road; preliminary method for the A50 road link (Eindhoven-Oss, the Netherlands) [J].Ecological Engineering,1996(9):327-349
[71]中国生态补偿机制与政策研究[R].http://www.cciced.org,2006-8-17
[72]曾培炎.中国西部开发报告[M].北京：中国水利水电出版社,2003：123-148
[73]浙江省环境保护局.浙江省环境保护公报[M].杭州：浙江出版社.2004
[74]国家发改委国土开发与地区经济研究所.中国生态移民的起源与发展研究报告[R],2004
[75]李小云,靳乐山,左停,[英]伊凡·邦德.生态补偿机制：市场与政府的作用[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：59-68
[76]周生贤.充满希望的十年[M].北京：中国林业出版社,2001.129-145
[77]杨朝飞.发挥市场经济条件下的政府监督职能,深入做好生态环境补偿费试点工作[A].国家环境保护总局自然生态保护司编.中国生态补偿费的理论与实践[C].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1995：19-47
[78]经济合作发展组织.环境税的实施战略[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1996.45-56
[79][美]莱斯特·R·布朗著,林自新,敢守志译.生态经济——有利于地球的经济构想[M].北京：东方出版社,2002.
[80]葛察忠,王金南.利用市场机制削减污染：排污收费、环境税与排污交易[J].经济研究参考,2001(2)：28-44
[81]王金南,万军,张惠远等.中国生态补偿政策评估与框架初探[A].王金南,庄国泰主编.生态补偿机制与政策设计国际研讨会论文集[C].北京：中国环境科学出版社.2005.13-24
[82]朱春全,陆文明.森林认证的背景与起源[J].森林认证通讯,2001(1)：18-22
[83]中国21世纪议程编委会.中国21世纪议程[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1994
[84]Three North Shelter belt Construction Bureau of state Forestry Administration,the Three North Shelter belt Program.http://www.3northforest.com/gcjj.htm.
[85]国家环境保护局自然保护司.中国环境补偿费的理论与实践[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1995
[86]Lu Yao,Gu Shuzhong and Wang Daolong. On the food security and ecological protection in ecologically fragile zones [J].China Agricultural Resources and Zoning,2001,22(6)
[87]林业局.中央森林生态效益补偿基金管理办法[J/OL].林业局政府网,1998-6-21
[88]林业局.财政林业贷款中央财政贴息资金管理规定[J/OL].林业局政府网,1999-12-6
[89]农业部.退牧还草和禁牧舍饲陈化粮供应监管暂行办法[J/OL].农业部政府网,2001-6-4
[90]水利部.中华人民共和国水土保持法实施条例[J/OL].水利部政府网,2005-12-4
[91]中国扶贫开发服务中心.中国扶贫开发的历史进程[J/OL].http://www.help-poverty.org.cn,2007-8-9
[92]国家发改委国土开发与地区经济研究所.中国生态移民的起源与发展[R].研究报告,2004
[93]水利部.中华人民共和国水土保持法实施条例[J/OL].水利部政府网,2005-9-1
[94]温家宝.“第六次全国环境保护大会”上的讲话[R].2006-4-17
[95]国务院.国民经济和社会发展第十一个五年规划纲要[R].2006
[96]国务院.国务院关于落实科学发展观加强环境保护的决定[R].国务院2006年工作要点[R].2006
[97]中华人民共和国国家统计局.2006年中国统计年鉴[CD].北京：中国统计出版社,2006
[98]中华人民共和国国家统计局.2006年中国统计年鉴[CD].北京：中国统计出版社,2007
[99]毛显强,钟瑜,张胜.生态补偿的理论探讨[J].中国人口·资源与环境,2002(4)：38-41
[100]洪尚群.生态补偿的融资——生态融资[J].江苏环境科技,2002(2)：46-49
[101]洪尚群.补偿途径和方式多样化是生态补偿基础和保障[J].环境科学与技术,2001(24)：12-16
[102]杜小惠.九龙江北溪龙岩段公益林的生态补偿问题[J].林业经济问题,2001(1)：59-61
[103]吴水荣,马天乐.水源涵养林生态补偿经济分析[J].林业经济问题,2002(5)：63-65
[104]赵燕云.退耕还林还草工作中存在的问题及对策[A].农民日报,2001-10-16(3)
[105]张力小,何英.西部大开发退耕还林(草)的政策有效性评析[J].林业科学,2002(1)：43-47
[106]钟瑜.退田还湖生态补偿机制研究——以邵阳湖区为案例[J].中国人口·资源与环境,2002(4)：54-58
[107]罗勇.区域经济可持续发展[M].北京：化学工业出版社环境科学与工程出版中心,2005.244
[108][美]约翰·麦克米兰.市场设计与环境治理[A].比较(第20辑)[M].北京：中信出版社,2005.7
[109]中国环境和发展国际合作委员会《生态补偿机制课题组》.中国生态补偿机制与政策研究[EB/OL]. http://www.cciced.org/cn/company/Tmxxb143/card142.asp? lmid=5238&siteid=1&tmid=4109&flbh=143
[110]秦艳红,康慕谊.国内外生态补偿现状及其完善措施[J].自然资源学报,2007,22(4)：557-567
[111][美]科斯著,刘守英等译.财产权利与制度变迁：产权学派与新制度学派译文集[M].上海：上海人民出版社.2004
[112]廖卫东.生态领域产权市场制度研究[M].北京：经济管理出版社,2004.115-116
[113]刘方笑,朱锡平.论我国生态产权制度的市场化改革[J].经济体制改革.2007(5)：49-52
[114]吴志军.规范排污权交易,促进可持续发展[J].上海环境科学,2001(12)：21-24
[115][美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦.法和经济学[M].上海：上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,1994
[116]中国生态补偿机制与政策研究课题组.中国生态补偿机制与政策研究[M].北京：科学出版社,2007.122-127
[117]曾培炎.中国西部开发报告[R].北京：中国水利水电出版社,2003.123-148
[118]国家环境保护局自然保护司编：中国生态环境补偿费的理论与实践[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,1995.92
[119]陈兆开.流域水资源生态补偿制度创新研究——理论框架、制度透视与创新构想[D].河海大学技术经济及管理博士学位论文,2008.181
[120]郑易生,孙桢.建立生态特区实现生态补偿[C].生态补偿机制与政策设计国际研讨会论文 集.北京：中国环境科学出版社,2006.126
[121]张家勇.建立实施“天然林保护工程”的行政补偿法律制度研究(下)[J].西南民族学院学报,2000(2)：26.
[122]钱水苗,王玉章.论流域生态补偿的制度构建[J].中国地质大学学报,2005(9)：82-83
[123]刘洁.健全农业生态环境补偿制度初探[J].辽宁工程技术大学学报,2009(4)：345-347
[124]况安轩.建立农业生态补偿机制的探索[J].湖南财经高等专科学校学报,2009(118)：28-29
[125]段昌群.生态约束与生态支撑——生态环境与经济社会关系互动的案例分析[M].北京：科学出版社,2006.225-227
[126]甄霖,闵庆文,李文华,金羽,杨光梅.海南省自然保护区生态补偿机制初探[J].资源科学,2006(6)：10-19
[127]徐建英,陈利顶,吕一河等.卧龙自然保护区社区居民政策响应研究[J].生物多样性,2004(6)：639-645.
[128]Waage,S. Building Capacity for Institutionalizing Ecosystem Services in Developing Countries.SupplementⅢ-Building National Capacity for Payments for Ecosystem Services.Report to the UNDP/GEF[C].ForestTrends:Washington,D.C.2005.
[129]Wackernagel M, Onisto L,Bello P, et al. National natural capital accounting with the ecological footprint concept [J].Ecological Economics,1999(29):375-390.
[130]李文华,李世东,李芬,刘某承.森林生态补偿机制若干重点问题研究[J].中国人口·资源与环境,2007(2)：13-18
[131]周冰冰.北京市森林资源价值[M].北京：中国林业出版社,2000
[132]丁希滨.山东省森林生态效益补偿机制研究[D].山东农业大学农业经济管理博士学位论文,2006.78
[133]雷玲.森林生态效益补偿机制研究[D].西北农林科技大学农业经济管理硕士学位论文2005.46-47