联合国与区域组织关系的国际法问题研究
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摘要
《联合国宪章》第八章对联合国与区域组织在维护国际和平与安全上的关系进行了规定,区域组织在一定程度和条件下被赋予和平解决争端和实行执行行动两个方面的任务。《宪章》第八章中最重要的条款是第五十三条关于授权的规定,区域组织未经安理会授权不得开展执行行动。
     本文通过对联合国成立后尤其是冷战结束后联合国与区域组织在维护国际和平与安全上的实践进行分析,发现两者之间形成了多种关系模式,其中既有合作,也有竞争和背离。冷战中联合国与区域组织最大的争议出现在区域组织在争端解决作用中的优先地位问题,而冷战后区域组织的武力使用问题也成为联合国与区域组织安全关系中最重要的法律问题之一。除自卫之外,区域组织在未获得安理会授权的情况下使用武力存在合法性缺失的问题,无论默示授权、预先自卫、人道主义干涉,还是保护的责任、为了恢复民主体制等理由都不能解除区域组织对禁止使用武力原则强制法律规范的遵守义务。近年来在非洲地区的一些区域组织的条约规定了本组织对成员国进行“干涉”的权利,但是基于条约的“国家同意”同样不能为禁止使用武力原则创立除自卫之外使用武力的例外情形。
     最后本文认为,尽管安全形势有所变化,《宪章》第八章和禁止使用武力等国际法原则仍然是当代国际法上指导联合国与区域组织维护国际和平与安全实践及其相互关系的基本准则。需要强调的是,在维护国际和平与安全的责任中安理会享有对武力使用的控制权,区域组织在未获得安理会授权的情况下除自卫外亦不得使用武力。
Chapter VIII of UN Charter is on regional arrangements, according to which theregional organizations are afforded with rights to resolve settlements peacefully ortake enforcement actions to maintain international peace and security. The key articleof Chapter VIII is article53, which reads that “no enforcement action shall be takenunder regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of theSecurity Council”.
     This thesis manifests that there are several interaction modes between UN and theregional organizations, including mutual-cooperation, mutual-competition orunilateral-deviation, since the establishment of UN especially after the end of the coldwar.During the cold war, it reveals that whose mechanism of settlement resolvinggoes first is a big problem, while the unilateral use of force by regional organizationsbecome one of the most important legal problems after the cold war.If not authorizedby UN security council, the enforcement by the regional organizations is illegalexcept for self-defense according to the UN Charter and the principles of internationallaw. The excuses claimed by the regional organizations, including implicit authority,the rights of anti-selfdefence, the rights of humanitarian intervention, and theresponsibility of protection, can not justify the legality of the unauthorizedactivities.To be further, the rights of treaty-based intervention created by someregional organization in Africa, which basing its legality on the principle of “stateconsent”, also can not exclude the obligation of the regional organizations to conformto the principle of non use of force, which belongs to jus congens.
     The thesis arrives at the conclusion that chapter VIII of UN Charter, the principleof prohibition of use of force and so on remain the guiding regulations on the actionstaken by UN and the regional organizations, though, the international securityenvironment is different from the initial stage of UN. It is imperative to point out that,the security council of UN possesses the exclusive right of determining when or howto use fore, while the regional organizations cannot use force unilaterally without theauthorization of the security council except for self-defense.
引文
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    ①梁西:《梁著国际组织法》(杨泽伟修订,第六版),武汉大学出版社2011年出版,第241页。
    ②饶戈平(主编):《国际组织法》,北京大学出版社1996年出版。
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    ②仪名海著:《20世纪国际组织》,中国传媒大学出版社2003年出版。
    ③仪名海著:《中国与国际组织》,新华出版社2004年出版。
    ④李鸣:《联合国安理会授权适用武力问题探究》,载《法学评论》2002年第3期(总第113期),第66-73页。
    ⑤孙焕为:《区域组织对安理会的挑战》,载《法学评论》(双月刊),2001年第1期,第80-87页。
    ①陈须隆:《联合国与区域组织相互关系的一个范例——试析联合国与欧安组织合作关系的建立和发展》,载《国际政治研究》,2000年第3期,第89-95页。
    ②万鄂湘、孙焕为:《从国际法看北约对南联盟的战争和对我驻南使馆的轰炸事件》,载《武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,1999年第4期(总第243期),第8-13页。
    ③朱文奇:《北约对利比亚采取军事行动的合法性研究》,载《法商研究》2011年第4期(总第144期),第104-109页。
    ④黄瑶:《从使用武力法看保护的责任理论》,载《法学研究》2012年第3期,第195-208页。
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    ④Jane Boulden(ed), Dealing With Conflict in Africa: The United Nations and Regional Organizations, PalgraveMacmillan,2003.
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    ①Monica Hakimi,“To Condone or Condemn? Regional Enforcement Actions in the Absence of Security CouncilAuthorization,” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law,Vol.40,2007.
    ②Ugo Vallani,“The Security Council`s Authorization of Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations,” MaxPlank Yearbook of United Nations Law, Vol.6,2002.
    ③Christian Walter,“Security Council Control Over Regional Actions,” Max Plank Yearbook of United NationsLaw,1997.
    ④Brown Ian, International Law and the Use of Force by States,(New York: Oxford University Press),1963.
    ⑤Butler, W.E., ed., The Non-Use of Force in International Law,(Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers),1998.
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    ②Singh, J.N, Use of Force under International Law,(New Delhi: Harnam Publications),1984.
    ③Tunkin, Grigori, Law and Force in the International System,(Moscow: Progress Publishers),1985.
    ④Henkin Louis,“The Reports of the Death of Article2(4) are Greatly Exaggerated,” American Journal ofInternational Law, vol.65,1971.
    ⑤Sadurska, Romana,“Threats of Force,” American Journal of International Law, vol.82,1988.
    ⑥M. Sorensen(ed.), Manual of Public International Law, London,1986.
    ⑦Bruno Simma,“NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects,” European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.10, NO.1,1999.
    ⑧Ruth Wedgwood,“NATO`s Campaign in Yugoslavia,” The American Journal of International Law, Vol.93,NO.4(Oct.,1999)
    ①Steven Wheatley,“The Foreign Affairs Select Committee Report on Kosovo: NATO Action and HumanitarianIntervention,” Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Vol.5No.2,2000
    ②Abraham D Sofaer,“International Law and Kosovo,” Stan. Journal of International Law, Vol.36, N0.1,2000.
    ③N.D. White,“The Legality of Bombing in The Name of Humanity,” Journal of Conflict and Security Law,VOL.5, NO.1,2000.
    ④Kofi Oteng Kufor,“The Legality of the Intervention in the Liberian Civil War by the Economic Community ofthe West African States”, African Journal of International and Comparative Law.Vol.5,1993.
    ⑤Georg Nolte,“Restoring Peace by Regional Action: International Legal Aspects of the Liberian Conflict”,Heidelberg Journal of International Law.
    ⑥Gilbert da Costa,“Fresh Impetus for Peace,” West Africa Magazine,16-22November1992.
    ①James Mayall,“National Identity and the Revival of Regionalism”, in Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrel(eds),Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order (Oxford, Oxford UniversityPress,1995), p.169,(hereafter Fawcett and Hurrell).
    ②Andrew Hurrell,“Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective”, in Fawcett and Hurrell, above note1, p.38.
    ①区域主义早期发展的回顾可以参见AH Robertson, The Law of International Institutions inEurope(Manchester University Press,1961);RJ Harrison, Europe in Question: Theories of RegionalIntegration(London, George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1971)等著作。区域组织等国际机制对世界体系影响日益加深的量化研究可见Michael Wallace and David Singer, Intergovernmental Organizations in the GlobalSystem,1815-1964:A Quantitative Description’,(1970)XXIV International Organization, p.272.
    ②Andrew Hurrell,“Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective”, in Fawcett and Hurrell, above note1, p.10.
    ③认为区域组织由地理相近的国家组成的代表性著作和论述可见:Joseph Nye(ed.),InternationalRegionalism(Boston:Little,Brown&Co.,1968); DW Bowett,Self-Defense in InternationalLaw(Manchester,Manchester University Press,1958), p.219; Bruce Russett,International Regions and theInternational Systems: A Study in Political Ecology(Chicago, Rand McNally and Co,1976); Waldemar Hummerand Michael Schweitzer in Bruno Simma(eds),The Charter of the United Nations:A Commentary(Oxford, OxfordUniversity Press,3rdedn,2002)807at820et sep.
    ④United Nations Conference on International Organization (hereafter UNCIO),Documents vol XII, p.850.
    ①Joseph Nye(ed.),International Regionalism(Boston:Little,Brown&Co.,1968), p.xii.
    ②同上注。
    ③王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年版,第561页。
    ④杨泽伟:《梁著国际组织法》(修订第六版),武汉大学出版社2011年出版,第238页。
    ①See Andrew Hurrell,“Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective”, in Fawcett and Hurrell, above note1, p.38.
    ②JS Nye,“Regional Institutions” in Cyril E Black and Richard A Falk(eds),The Future of International LegalOrder:The Structure of International Environment (Princeton, Princeton University Press,1972)
    ③Bruce Russett, International Regions and the International Systems: A Study in Political Ecology (Chicago,Rand McNally and Co,1976), p.3.
    ④同上,p.15.
    ⑤Bruce Russett, International Regions and the International Systems: A Study in Political Ecology (Chicago,Rand McNally and Co,1976), p.1.
    ①同上注。
    ②Paul Tayor, International Organization in the Mordern World: The Regional and Global Process (London, Pinter,1993), pp.24-28.
    ③同上注。
    ④Ellen-Fry Wouters,“The Prospects for Regionalism in World Affairs”, in Cyril E Black and Richard A Falk(eds),The Future of International Legal Order, Vol.1(Princeton, Princeton University Press,1969), p.466.
    ⑤同上注,p.461.
    ⑥同上注。
    ①See Dekker and Myjer,“Air Strikes om Bosnian Positions:Is NATO also Legally the Proper Instrument of theUN?” Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol.9,1996, p.413.
    ②Declaration on Peace Co-operation issued by the Head of States and Government participating in the meeting ofthe North Atlantic Council(NAAC),8November1991.
    ③Wallander “Institutional Assets and Adaptability: NATO After the Cold War”, International Organization,Vol.54,2000, p.712.
    ①Rupert Vance,“The Regional Concept as a Tool for Social Research”, in Merrill Jensen(ed),Regionalism inAmerica (Madison Wis, University of Wisconsin Press,1955), p.392.
    ②同上,第123页。
    ③Odum W Howard, Southern Region of the United States (Chapel Hill, NC, University of North CarolinaPress,1936); Harry Estill Moore, American Regionalism: A Cultural-Historical Approach to National Integration
    (New York, Henry Holt,1938), p.27.
    ①Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social, and Economic Forces,1950-1957(Stanford, California:Stanford University Press,1968), pp.283-317.
    ②Ademola Abass, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII of theUN Charter(Hart Publishing,2004), p.16.
    ①James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1990).
    ②Andre Gunder Frank,“The Development of Underdevelopment”(1966) Monthly Review (September), pp.92-369.
    ③Rajni Kothari, Footstep Into the Future: Diagnosis of the Present World and a Design for an Alternative (NewYork, The Free Press,1974), p.135.
    ④Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations,(Priceton University Press,1987), p.304.
    ⑤James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge University Press,1990), p.141.
    ①对联合国宪章进行解释的代表性著作有:Simma Brono, The Charter of the UN: A Commentary (OxfordUniversity Press,2002);Goodrich, Hambro&Simons, Charter of The United Nations: Commentary andDocuments(Third and Revised Edition),Columbia University Press,1969; Ruth B.Russell, A History of The UnitedNations Charter: The Role of the United States1940-1945(Washington,D.C., The Brookings Institution,1958);许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》(山西教育出版社1999年4月出版)。
    ①《闵斯特条约》和《奥斯纳布鲁克条约》包含放弃元老院抗议的条款,这些条款“最终和正式地消除了罗马决定性改变欧洲世俗政权进程的可能性”。
    ①王绳祖等编:《国际关系史资料选编》,法律出版社1988年版,第22页。
    ②卡列维·霍尔斯蒂:《1648年的闵斯特和奥斯纳布鲁克:渐进的和平》,见计秋枫、龚洪烈编著:《国际关系史研究导论》,南京大学出版社2011年5月出版,第8页。
    ③维也纳会议于1814年10月到1815年6月之间在奥地利维也纳召开,这次会议是由奥地利政治家梅特涅提议和组织的。其目的在于重新商讨和规划拿破仑被战败后的欧洲政治地图。
    ④拿破仑战争结束后召开的维也纳会议上,决定成立莱茵河航运中央委员会,该委员会第一次会议于1816年8月15日在美因茨召开,确定了第一个管理莱茵河航运的美因茨协定。莱茵河航运委员会是世界上历史最长的国际组织,其目的是保障莱茵河的环境和航运安全,以促进欧洲的繁荣。
    ⑤王绳祖:《维也纳会议和维也纳体系的补充》见计秋枫、龚洪烈编著:《国际关系史研究导论》,南京大学出版社2011年5月出版,第81页。
    ①周鲠生:《国际法》(下册),武汉大学出版2007年9月出版,第637页。
    ①President Wilson`s State Papers and Addresses (New York, Sept.27,1918), p.524, as quoted in Van Kleffens,E.N.,“Regionalism and Political Pacts”, AJIL Vol.43(1949), p.673.
    ②王铁崖、田如萱编:《国际法资料选编》,法律出版社,第858页。《国际联盟盟约》第二十一条的英文为“Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties ofarbitration or regional understanding like the Monroe doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace”.
    ③Leland M. Goodrich, Regionalism and the United Nations, Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science,Vol.23,No.3,The United States and the Atlantic Community(May.1949), p.47.
    ①Akindele, R.A., The Organization and Promotion of World Peace:A Study of Universal-Regional Relationships(University of Toronto Press,1976), pp.32-45.
    ②罗斯·拉赛尔:《联合国史》(英文版),1958年,第107页。转引自许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社1999年出版,第366页。
    ①引自仪名海:《冷战后区域组织的发展及其与联合国的关系》,载《国际论坛》2000年6月第2卷第3期,第17页。
    ②Muthiah Alagappay,“Regional Arrangement And International Security in Southeast Asia: Going BeyondZOPFAN”, Contemporary Southeast Asia Vol.12, N0.4,(1991)页。转引自引自仪名海:《冷战后区域组织的发展及其与联合国的关系》,载《国际论坛》2000年6月第2卷第3期,第19页。
    ③王铁崖教授将区域组织分为政治性区域组织、经济性区域组织、金融性区域组织和军事性区域组织。邵津教授主编的《国际法》教材中认为区域组织根据其宗旨和职权范围,可以分为一般性区域组织和专门性区域组织,而后者又包括经济性区域组织、金融性区域组织和军事性区域组织。本文的分类标准参考两位学者对区域组织的分类逻辑并结合本文的论述重点而进行分类。
    ①王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年出版,第562页。
    ①王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年出版,第564页。
    ②Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.474.
    ①江国青:《论国际法的主体结构》,载《法学家》2003年第5期,第144页。
    ④饶戈平:《国际组织法》,北京大学出版社1996年出版,第106页。
    ①Finn Seyersted, Objective international personality of Intergovernmental organizations: Do their capacitiesreally depend on the conventions establishing them?(Copenhagen,1963), esp. p.47.
    ②Jan Klabbers, An introduction to international institutional law(Second edition), Cambridge University Press,2009, p.50.
    ③Reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, advisory opinions of11November1949,ICJ reports1949,174et seq.
    ①M马莱司库著,《欧洲共同体法提纲》第28页,中国政法大学1984年9月印;转引自吴慧:《论国际组织的法律地位》,载《安徽大学学报》(哲学社会科学版),1993年第1期,第87页。
    ②在《欧盟宪法条约》破产后,欧盟成员国于2007年签署的《里斯本条约》由《欧洲联盟条约》和《欧洲联盟运行条约》组成。其中《欧洲联盟条约》对2004年的《欧盟宪法条约》进行修改时,在第46条首次加入“欧盟具有法律人格”的规定,“The Union Shall Have Legal Personality”,http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:306:0010:0041:EN:PDF.
    ①Reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, advisory opinions of11November1949,ICJ reports1949,180et seq.
    ②饶戈平:《国际组织法》,北京大学出版社1996年出版,第108页。
    ③梁西:《国际组织法》(第四版),武汉大学出版社1998年出版,第10页。
    ④联合国作为最权威的全球性组织,在《联合国宪章》中对非成员国的义务进行了规定,这是个例外。
    ①1967年以后,美洲国家组织增加泛美经济与社会理事会和教育,科学和文化理事会。美洲国家组织曾经有一个维护西半球和平的外围机构即“泛美和平委员会”,是在1940年的第二次外长协商上建立的,但是直到1948年美洲国家组织建立后才由理事会推动其开展活动。泛美和平委员会本身没有权力来主导和谈,它仅就争端事态作出详细的调查,然后将调查结果向理事会会或外长协商会议汇报。1967年泛美和平委员会改名为泛美和平争端解决委员会,1985年的《美洲国家组织宪章》修正案通过决定取消了该委员会。
    ②李巨轸:《略论美洲国家组织的维和机制》,载《拉丁美洲研究》2007年10月第29卷第5期,第66页。
    ③Constitutive Act of the African Union, Art.5.
    ④Constitutive Act of the African Union, Art.5.
    ①Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, PreambleParas.3-4.
    ②黄德明、李陵峡:《非洲联盟和平与安全理事会初探》,载《法学评论(双月刊)》2004年第6期(总第128期),第119页。
    ③杨泽伟主编:《梁著国际组织法》(修订第六版),武汉大学出版社2011年出版,第254页。
    ①饶戈平、张献:《国际组织通览》,世界知识出版社2004年出版,第81页。
    ②Nicole Gnesotto (ed),. EU Security and Defense Policy-The first five years(1999-2004),Institute for SecurityStudies, EuropeanUnion,Paris,2004,pp.96-98.http://English.nupi.no/Publications/Working-Papers/2005/Strategic-Adaptation-or-Identity-Change.转引自张迎红:《欧盟共同安全与防务政策研究》,时事出版社2011年12月出版,第173页。
    ③同上注。
    ①Constitutive Act of the African Union,Art.3.
    ②Constitutive Act of the African Union,Art.4.
    ①邓宗豪:《欧洲一体化的进程:历史、现状与启示》,四川大学出版社2011年出版,第198页。
    ②邓宗豪:《欧洲一体化的进程:历史、现状与启示》,四川大学出版社2011年出版,第211页。
    ③2000年12月,在法国尼斯举行的欧盟首脑会议上通过《尼斯条约》,欧盟部长理事会于2001年2月26日正式签署,2003年2月《尼斯条约》正式生效。《尼斯条约》的全称是“修改《欧洲联盟条约》、建立欧洲各共同体诸条约和某些附件的尼斯条约”。
    ④http://www.osce.org/search/?displayMode=3&lsi=true&q=Helsinki+Final+Act&GO=GO
    ①美洲国家组织系统中各机构实践和理论的对比研究可参阅L.R. Scheman and J.W.Ford,“The Organization ofAmerican States as mediator”, in S. Touval and I.W.Zartman(eds.), International Mediation in Theory and Practice,Boulder,1985, p.197.
    ②关于非洲统一组织协调、调节和仲裁委员会的研究可见:T.O. Elias,“The Commission of Mediation,Conciliation and Arbitration of the Organization of African Unity”, BYBILVol.40,1964, p.336; H.A. Amankwah,“International Law, dispute settlement and regional organizations in an African setting,” Journal of InternationalLaw, Vol.21,1981,.p.352.
    ①J.G. Merrilis, International National Dispute Settlement(Third Edition), Cambridge University Press,1998,p.265.
    ②G. M. H. Waldock (ed.), International Disputes: The Legal Aspects, London,1972,p.256, Also F.L.Kirgis,“NATOconsultations as a component of national decision-making”,(1979) American Journal of International Law, Vol.73,p.372.
    ③杨泽伟主编:《梁著国际组织法》(修订第六版),武汉大学出版社2011年出版,第245页。
    ④《阿拉伯国家联盟公约》1945年3月订于开罗,1945年5月生效。《联合国宪章》1945年6月签订。
    ①参见《阿拉伯国家联盟公约》第19条规定,《国际条约集(1945—1947)》,世界知识出版,1959年2月出版,第22页。
    ②《美洲国家组织宪章》第十六章规定,“本宪章的任何条款不得解释为妨害在联合国宪章下会员国的权利及义务。
    ③《非洲统一组织宪章》,载《国际条约集(1963-1965)》,世界知识出版社,1976年出版,第109页。
    ④Article2, Chapter IV of CSCE Helsinki Document1992: The Challenges of Change,9-10July1992,“Theparticipating States, reaffirming their commitments to the Charter of the United Nations as subscribed to by them,declare their understanding that the CSCE is a regional arrangement in the sense of Chapter VIII of the Charter ofthe United Nations and as such provides an important link between European and global security. Their rights andresponsibilities of the United Nations Security Council remain unaffected in their entirely.”http://www.osce.org/mc/39530.
    ⑤《上海合作组织成员国国防部长会议发表联合公报》,人民网,2008年5月15日。http://world.people.com.cn/GB/7246934.html
    ①《宪章》第八章的条款:第五十二条:一、本宪章不得认为排除区域办法或区域机关、用以应付关于维持国际和平及安全而宜于区域行动之事件者;但以此项办法或机关及其工作与联合国之宗旨及原则符合者为限。二、缔结此项办法或设立此项机关之联合国会员国,将地方争端提交安全理事会以前,应依该项区域办法,或由该项区域机关,力求和平解决。三、安全理事会对于依区域办法或由区域机关而求地方争端之和平解决,不论系由关系国主动,或由安全理事会提交之,应鼓励其发展。四、本条绝不妨碍第三十四条及第三十五条之适用。第五十三条:一、安理会对于职权内之执行行动,在适当情形下,应利用此项区域办法或区域机关。如无安理会之授权,不得依区域办法或由区域机关采取任何执行行动;但关于依第一百零七条之规定对付本条第二项所指之任何敌国之步骤,截至本组织经各关系政府之请求,对于此等国家之再次侵略,能担负防止责任为止,不在此限。二、本条第一项所称敌国系指第二次世界大战中为本宪章任何签字国之敌国而言。第五十四条:关于为维持国际和平及安全起见,依区域办法或由区域机关所已采取或正在考虑之行动,不论何时应向安全理事会充分报告之。
    ②Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.440.
    ①See ‘Dumbarton Oaks of Proposals for the Establishment of a General International Organization’, Chapter VIII,Section A, Article1-7.
    ①Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.472.
    ①Ezequiel Padilla(Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs),“The American System and the World Organization,”Foreign Affairs, Vol.24(October1954), p.104.
    ②Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization(1945).(Hereinafter cited as UNCIODocuments.), Vol.3, under the country concerned.
    ①参见《国际联盟盟约》的第15(7)条款。
    ②Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.690.
    ③Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr., ed., The Private Papers of Senator Vandenberg (1952), p.198.
    ①UNCIO Documents, Vol.3p.688.这个文本并没有最后提交到制宪会议作为提案,因为苏联没有在5月4日最后期限前作出同意表态,然而到5月7日苏联对此表述表示同意,因此该文本可视为四大国的共同建议案。转引自Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,The Brookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.692.
    ①Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.694.
    ②Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr., ed., The Private Papers of Senator Vandenberg (1952), pp.187-188..
    ③Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.695.
    ①Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.699.
    ②Ruth B.Russell, A History of The United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States1940—1945,TheBrookings Institution, Washington,D.C.,1958, p.699.
    ①Goodrich Hambro&Simons, Charter of the United Nations (Third&Revised Edition), Columbia UniversityPress,1969, p.357.
    ③SCOR/17thYr./991st---998thMtgs./Feb.27—Mar.23,1962.
    ④SCOR/9THYr./675thMtg./June20,1954, and Supp. for April, May, and June, pp.11-13.
    ⑤Goodrich Hambro&Simons, Charter of The United Nations (Third&Revised Edition), Columbia UniversityPress,1969, p.358.
    ⑦SCOR/19thYr./1170th-1178thMtgs./Dec.9-17,1964;1181stand1183d-1189thMtgs./Dec.22-30,1964; and SC Res.199, Dec.30,1964.
    ①许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社1999年出版,第371页。
    ②J.G. Merrilis, International National Dispute Settlement(Third Edition), Cambridge University Press,1998,p.273.
    ①叶兴平:《和平解决国际争端》(修订本),法律出版社2008年出版,第221页。同时参见:P.B.Wild,“TheOrganization of African Unity and the Algerian–Moroccan border conflict”,International Organizations,Vol.20,1996, p.18.
    ②叶兴平:《和平解决国际争端》(修订本),法律出版社2008年出版,第215页。
    ②陈万里、赵军:《浅析阿盟的功能演变及其发展前景》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》2006年第4期,第4页。
    ③江龙晖:《东盟对柬埔寨问题的解决》,厦门大学国际关系2006级硕士论文,第28-31页,见http://www.docin.com/p-467766467.htm/
    ①UNCIO Documents,Vol.12, pp.686-687.
    ②UN S/PV.675(OR),http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N54/200/65/PDF/N5420065.pdf?OpenElement
    ①UN Doc.S/3236/Rev.1,June20,1954.
    ②See SCOR/9thYr./675thand676thMtgs./June20and25,1954; also see Leland M. Goodrich, Edvard Hambro&Anne Patricia Simmons, Charter of the United Nations: commentary and documents, Columbia University Press,1969, p.362.
    ③UN GAOR,9thSession, Plenary Meetings,481stmeetings, paras.15and16.
    ④同上注,485thmeetings, para.58.
    ②参见《联合国宪章》第103条的规定。
    ①UN Doc.S/4395,July19,1960.http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N60/174/06/PDF/N6017406.pdf?OpenElement
    ②For discussion, see SCOR/15THYr./874th-876thMtgs./July18-19,1960.
    ③GA Res.1616(xv), Apr.21,1961.For debate, see GAOR/15THSess.,1stCtte./1100th,1106th,and1107thMtgs./Nov.2,Nov.8, and Nov.10,1960;and909thand910thPlen.Mtgs./Oct.31and Nov.1,1960.
    ①S/PV.2431(OR),http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/NL8/301/86/PDF/NL830186.pdf?OpenElement
    ②S/RES/530, available at http://www.un.org/zh/documents/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/530(1983).
    ③SCOR/13THYr./818thMtg./May25,1958.
    ④UN Docs. S/4018,June2,1958and S/4023,June11,1958.
    ⑤Louis Sohn(ed), Basic Document of African Regional Organizations(Dobbs Ferry, NY, Published for theinter-American Institute of International Legal Studies by Oceana Publications,1971-72).
    ⑥UNGAOR,34THSession,1979, Supp NO23(Doc.A/34/23/Rev.1),106.
    ⑦UN Doc.S/5542,Feb.14,1964; and Docs. S/5557and S/5558,Feb.18,1964.
    ①UN Doc. Sth/6129, Dec.30,1964, http://www.un.org/zh/documents/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/199(1964)
    ②SCOR/19Yr./1170th-1178th,1181st,1183d-1189thMtgs./Dec.9-17,1964; and UN Doc. S/6129, Dec.30,1964.
    ③Goodrich, Edvard Hambro&Anne Patricia Simmons, Charter of the United Nations: commentary anddocuments, Columbia University Press,1969.
    ④SCOR/839d Mtg./Sept.8,1960/para.63. See also statement by the Secretary-General in his ninth annual report.GAOR/9thSess./1954/Supp.1/(A/2663), p.xi.
    ①在联合国安理会考虑关于美洲国家外长会议下令对多米尼加共和国实行经济制裁措施的问题时,厄瓜多尔的代表的提出该观点,被认为是区域组织在和平解决争端上优先适用问题比较客观的观点,可见Leland M.Goodrich, Edvard Hambro&Anne Patricia Simmons, Charter of the United Nations: commentary and documents,Columbia University Press,1969, p.364.
    ②例如,B.Rivlin, Regional arrangements and the UN system for collective security and conflict resolution:Anewroad ahead?, International Relations,Vol.11,1992, p.95and A.K. Henrikson, The growth of regional organizationsand the role of the United Nations, in Fawcett and Hurrell, Regionalism in World Politics, p.122.
    ①参见report of committee dealing with security council action to meet threats to peace and acts of aggression,UNCIO Documents, X,507-8.
    ②UNCIO XI,pp.20-24,转引自Bruno Simma, The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (SecondEdition),2002, the Oxford University Press, p.860.
    ③Moore, J.N.,“The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Maintenance of World Order”, in Cyril E. Black&Richard A. Falk, The Future of the International Legal Order, The Priceton Universtiy Press,1971, p.153.
    ④SCOR/15thYr./893Mtg./Sept.8,1960/paras.24-25.
    ①UN Doc. S/4491, Sept.9,1960.
    ②关于该问题的讨论,参见SCOR/17thYr./992d-998thMtgs./Mar.14-23,1962.
    ③UN Doc. S/6333,May7,1965.
    ④SCOR/20thYr./1222d Mtg./June9,1965/pp.21-22.另,国际法院在“Certain Expenses”案例的咨询意见中认为联合国在塞浦路斯、刚果和中东等地的维和行动不构成执行行动。
    ⑤SCOR/20thYr./1222d Mtg./June9,1965/pp.66-68.
    ①Wolf,“Regional Arrangements and the UN Charter”, EPIL IV,P94.
    ②R.A. Akindele, The Organization and Promotion of World Peace,1976, p.56.
    ③支持该观点的学者主要有:Jimenez de Arechaga, R Gerold, Christian Walter等。
    ④关于经济强制措施与宪章第2(4)条之间的关系有过大量的论述,具体可参见: Derek W Bowett,’EconomicCoercion and Reprisal by States’,(1972)13(1) Virginia Journal of International Law1;OY Elegab,’The Legalityof Non-forcible Counter-Measures in International Law’(Oxford, Clarendon Press,1988); AHindmarsh,’Self-help in Time of Peace’(1932)26American Journal of International Law515; L Damrosch,
    ‘Retaliation or Arbitration—or Both? The1978United States—France Aviation Dispute’(1980) American Journalof International Law,Vol.174, p.245.
    ①UN Doc784,1/1/27, UNCIO Documents331,334-35(1945).
    ②S/PV.38223822ndmtg,8October1997.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/1132(1997)8October1997.
    ②该统计数据参见联合国网站,以及Cortright and Lopez, Sanctions Decade, Assessing UN Strategies in the1990s (Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc,2000), pp.1-2.其中安理会的经济制裁包括:伊拉克(1990)、前南联盟(1991,1992和1998)、利比亚(1992)、索马里(1992)、柬埔寨(1992)、海地(1993)、安哥拉(1993、1997和1998)、卢旺达(1994)、苏丹(1996)、塞拉利昂(1997)、和阿富汗(1999)。
    ①Eide A,“Peace-keeping and Enforcement by Regional Organizations”, JPR3(1996),p.129; Kourula, E“Peace-keeping and Regional Arrangements” in United Nations Peace-Keeping(Cassese, E, ed.1978), pp.108-109.
    ②Davidson S., Grenada: A Study in Politics and the Limits of International Law(1978), p.109.
    ③Leo Gross, Expenses of the United Nations for Peace-Keeping Operation: The Advisory Opinion of theInternational Court of Justice, International Organization, Vol.17, NO.1(Winter1963) pp.19,,21,22
    ④国际法院咨询意见摘录,见http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/ch/files/sum_1948-1991.pdf.
    ⑤《宪章》第十一条规定,大会得讨论联合国任何会员国或安理会或非联合国依第三十五条第二项之规定向大会所提关于维持国际和平及安全之任何问题;除第十二条所规定之外,并得向会员国或安全理事会或兼向两者提出对于各该项问题之建议。凡对于需要行动之各该项问题,应由大会于讨论前或讨论后提交安理会。
    ⑥国际法院咨询意见摘录,见http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/ch/files/sum_1948-1991.pdf.
    ①盛红生:《联合国维持和平行动法律问题研究》,时事出版社2006年出版,第30页。
    ②Christine Gray,’Peacekeeping and Enforcement Action in Africa: The Role of Europe and the Obligations ofMultilateralism, Review of International Studies, Vol.31,Force and Legitimacy in WorldPolitics(Dec.,2005),pp.207-223; Eide A,”Peace-keeping and Enforcement by Regional Organizations”,JPR3(1996)
    ③Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford UniversityPress,(2002), p.861.
    ④Eide A,“Peace-keeping and Enforcement by Regional Organizations”, JPR3(1996), p.129; Kourula, E‘Peace-keeping and Regional Arrangements’ in United Nations Peace-Keeping(Cassese, E, ed.1978), p.108.
    ①See L.C. Meeker,”Defensive Quarantine and the Law’, AJIL57(1963),515(520et sep.) and by A. Chayes,“Lawand the Quarantine of Cuba”, Foreign Aff,41(1962/63),550(556) and L. Henkin,” International Law and theBehavior of Nations”, RdC114(1965),167(259et sep).
    ②《联合国宪章》第11条第2项,“大会得讨论联合国任何会员国或安全理事会或非联合国会员国依第三十五条第二项之规定向大会所提交关于维持国际和平及安全之任何问题;除第十二条所规定之外,并得向会员国或安全理事会或兼向两者提出对于各该项问题之建议。凡对于需要行动之各项该问题,应由大会于讨论前或讨论后提交安全理事会会”,该项规定了大会在维持国际和平及安全方方面的讨论和建议权。
    ③ICJ Reports1962,150,(164et sep.)
    ①Fred L Morrison in J Delbruck (ed), Allocation of Law Enforcement Authority in the International System:Proceedings of an International Symposium of the Kiel Institute of International Law, March23to25,1994(Berlin, Duncker&Humblot,1995), p.43.
    ②Inis Clauder Jr,“The OAS, the UN, and the United States”,1964, International Conciliation,pp.548-553, JohnNorton Moore,“The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Maintenance of World Order” in Cyril E Black andRichard Falk (eds), The Future of the International Legal Order, Vol3(New Jersey, Princeton University Press,1977), p.153.
    ①Chayes, Abram “Law and the Quarantine of Cuba”, Foreign Affairs, Vol.41,1963, pp.550-558.
    ②Meeker,L.C.,“Defensive Quarantine and the Law”, AJIL Vol.57(1963), p.522.
    ③Asbjorn Eide,“Peace-keeping and Enforcement by Regional Organizations: Its Place in the United NationsSystem”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol.3, NO.2,1966, p.127.
    ④James E. Hickey,“Challenges to Security Council Monopoly Power Over The Use of Force in EnforcementActions”, International Legal Theory,(Spring2004), Vol.10, p.69.
    ①Ugo Villani,“The Security Council`s Authorization of Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations”, MaxPlanck Yearbook of UN Law, Volume6,2002, pp.535-537.
    ①Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford UniversityPress,(2002), p.866.
    ①Wolf, J.“Regional Arrangements and the UN Charter;” EPIL IV P95; Kourula, E.“Peace-Keeping and RegionalArrangements”, in United Nations Peace-Keeping (Cassese E. ed.,1978), p.118.
    ②Meeker, L. C.,“Defensive Quarantine and the Law”, AJIL57(1963), p.520.
    ③Walter C, United Nations and Regional Organizations,PP201et sep.转引自:Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter ofthe United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford University Press,(2002) p.864.
    ④Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford UniversityPress,(2002), pp.864-865.
    ①Walter C, United Nations and Regional Organizations,PP293-294et sep.转引自:Bruno Simma(ed.), TheCharter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford University Press,(2002), p.864.
    ①Ugo Villani,“The Security Council`s Authorization of Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations”, MaxPlanck Yearbook of UN Law, Volume6,2002, pp.552-553.
    ②许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社,1998年出版,第379页。
    ③Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford UniversityPress,(2002) p.870.
    ①Kelson, The Law of the United Nations:a critical analysis of its fundamental problems, London Institute ofWorld Affairs,1951, p.810.
    ②Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, Jurisdiction and Admissibility, ICJ Reports(1984),p.392; Merits, ICJ Reports (1986), p.14.
    ③UNCIO XII, pp.705.
    ①Skubiszewski, K.“The Postwar Alliances of Poland and the United Nations Charter”, AJIL53(1959) P.620.
    ②Report of the Committee on the Charter of the United Nations and the Strengthening of the Role of theOrganization, General Assembly, Official Records,50thSession, Supplement No.33(A/50/33) and GA Res.50/52,Dec.11,1995.
    ③潘国平:《国际法上的自卫权》,北京大学博士论文,第39页。
    ④Ian Brownlie, International Law and Use of Force by States, Oxford, New York,1963, p.278.
    ①The Nicaragua Case, ICJ Reports,1986, pp.103-104.
    ②许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社,1998年出版,第354页。
    ③劳特派特,《奥本海国际法》(上卷第一分册),北京法律出版社出版,1955年,第225页。
    ④【英】詹宁斯、瓦茨修订,王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》(第一卷第一分册),中国大百科全书出版社,1995年第1版,第15页。
    ①Peter Malanczuk, Akehurst`s Modern Introduction to International Law,7thed., Routledge,1997,p.317.
    ②布朗列:“在自卫中使用武力”,载《英国国际法年刊》,1961年,第229-232页。转引自许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社,1998年出版,第354页。
    ③龚向前:“论国际法上的自卫”,载《武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》第57卷第3期,2004年5月,第399页。
    ④【苏】C.B.克里洛夫著,张瑞祥、马华、徐俊人、刘文宗译:《联合国史料》(第1卷),北京:中国人民大学出版社,1955年版,第192-93页。
    ①潘国平:《国际法上的自卫权》,北京大学博士论文,第39页。
    ②黄惠康:《国际法上的集体安全制度》,武汉大学出版社,1990年版,第243页。
    ③The Nicaragua Case, ICJ Reports,1986, PP.103-104.,119-122,paras.195-199.
    ④许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社,1998年出版,第357页。
    ①Kelsen H., The Law of the United Nations:a critical analysis of its fundamental problems, London Institute ofWorld Affairs,1951,p.328; Leland M. Goodrich, Edvard Hambro&Anne Patricia Simmons, Charter of the UnitedNations: commentary and documents, Columbia University Press,1969, p.318.
    ①See Hummer/Schweitzer on Art.52MN42-5.
    ②Kelsen H., The Law of the United Nations:a critical analysis of its fundamental problems, London Institute ofWorld Affairs,1951,p.328; See Art.5of Rio Treaty, and Art.5of Brussels Treaty (WEU).
    ③Boweett, D.W., The Law of International Institution, Stevens and Sons Ltd,1963, p.136; Yalem R., Regionalismand World Order, Public Affairs Press,(1965),p.38.
    ④许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社,1998年出版,第382页。
    ⑤Leland M. Goodrich, Edvard Hambro&Anne Patricia Simmons, Charter of the United Nations: commentaryand documents, Columbia University Press,1969,,p.368.
    ①Levin, A.,“The Organization of American States and the United Nations: Relations in the Peace and SecurityField’, in Regionalism and the United Nations (Andemicael B.ed.,1979p.181,其中提到“事实上由区域组织来决定是否向安理会报告,或向安理会报告哪些内容。”
    ②Bruno Simma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford University Press,
    (2002), p.894.
    ③EV Rostow,“Until What? Enforcement Action or Collective Self-Defense?” American Journal of InternationalLaw, Vol.85,1991, p.506.
    ④参见1945-1978年份联合国关于The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs中的数据,转引自BrunoSimma(ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary(Second Edition), Oxford University Press,(2002)p.895.
    ⑤US Policy in the Persian Gulf: Hearing before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,101stCong,2ndSession107,(pt1)(1990)
    ①Ademola Abass,“Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII ofthe UN Charter”, Hart Publishing,2004, p.64.
    ①参见Trevor Findlay, The Use of Force in UN Peace Operations,(Oxford University Press,2002);该著作由斯德哥尔摩国际和平研究所2002年出版,在书中作者对”Peace Operation”的概念进行了界定,将其描述为联合国所进行所有包括军事人员在内的行动,无论是传统维和行动,扩大化的维和行动还是人道主义行动或执行行动。使用该术语是为了避免在传统或非传统维和中作出区别,抑或是区分执行行动自然行使还是有意为之。
    ②《奥本海国际法》1992年第9版,中译本第1卷第1分册,中国大百科全书出版社1995年出版那,第314页。
    ①Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook2001[R],http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=9.
    ①参见安南:《和平纲领》,UN A/47/277-S/24111(1992年6月17日,http://www.un.org/chinese/aboutun/sg/report/hpgl.htm#世局
    ④UN A/RES/49/57,http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N95/768/00/IMG/N9576800.pdf?OpenElement
    ①Ademola Abass,“The Security Council and the Challenges of Collective Security in the21th Century: WhatRole for African Regional Organizations?” in Douglas Lewis(ed), Global Governance and the Quest forJustice,Volume1(Oxford, Hart Publishing, forthcoming).
    ②李巨轸:《略论美洲国家组织的维和机制》,载《拉丁美洲研究》2007年10月,第29卷第5期,第69页。
    ③Ademola Abass, The New Collective Security Mechanism of ECOWAS: Innovations and Problems, Journal ofConflict and Security Law,Vol.5, NO.2,2000,p.211.
    ①(加)阿米塔·阿查亚著,王正毅,冯怀信译:《建构安全共同体:东盟与地区秩序》,上海人民出版社,2004年版。
    ②刘阿明:《两面下注与行为调整——中国与东盟在南海问题上户型模式研究》,载《当代亚太》2011年第5期,第60页。
    ③《秘书长关于联合国的工作报告》(1998年),http://www.un.org/chinese/aboutun/sg/report/a53-1/ch1.htm
    ④陈滨生:《“预防性外交”——和平解决争端的重要方式》,载《》第7期,第41页。
    ①联合国安理会峰会于1992年1月31日在纽约举行,上述讲话摘自本次峰会的会议记录。参见:UN SCOR,Supp.47, Jan-March, UN Doc S/23500(1992), pp.51-52.
    ②UN S/PRST/2010/14,2010年7月16日,http://www.un.org/chinese/aboutun/prinorgs/sc/sdoc/2010/sprst14.html
    ①数据见:http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/list.shtml
    ②Sonnenfeld, Resolutions of the UN Security Council (1988), p.103.
    ③中国国际战略学会军控与裁军研究中心:《当代国际维和》,军事谊文出版社2006年6月出版,第333页。
    ④非盟的宪章文件于2001年5月正式生效,其内容见:www.africa-union.org/About_AU/Constitutive_Act.htm.
    ⑤http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/index.php?id=ap101299&lang=en
    ①CSCE Helsiniki Document1992: The Challenges of Change,9-10July,1992, http://www.osce.org/
    ②Andrea Kathryn Talentino, Military Intervention after the Cold War: The Evolution of Theory and Practice,
    Centre of International Studies, Ohio University,2005, p.26.
    ①Jane Bouledn ed, Dealing with Conflict in Africa: The United Nations and Regional Organizations, p.3.
    ②M.Koskenniemi,‘The Place of Law in Collective Security’(1996)17Michigan Journal if International Law455-460,在这篇文章中,作者认为联合国集体安全体制的第一个问题就是安理会臭名昭著的选择性。
    ③联合国秘书长1991年报告,UN GAOR,46THSession, Supp No.1, at3, UN Doc A/461/1(1991).
    ④摘自科菲·安南秘书长2000年5月3日在法国巴黎的一次发言,http://www.nytimes,com/library/world/africa/050500sierra-leone-assess.html.
    ⑤UN Doc S/RES/918,17May1994.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/929,22June1994.
    ②关于联合国在卢旺达问题上表现的评论可参见:McCoubrey and Morris, Regional Peacekeeping in the ColdWar Era (The Hague, Kluwer Law International,2000), pp.132-134.
    ③GRAY,”International law and the use of force”(2008), p.381
    ④《中非合作论坛北京峰会举行记者招待会———中国、埃塞俄比亚、埃及外长就峰会等问题回答中外记者提问》,2006年11月5日,参见外交部网站:http://www. fmprc. gov. cn/chn/zxxx/t278875. htm,2008年6月1日访问。
    〔8〕《中国外交政策》,2006年8月24日,参见外交部网站:ht2cn/chn/zxxx/t278875. htm,2008年6月1日访问。第8页。
    ①1993Annual Register425;1993UNYB304.
    ②S/PRST/1997/46.
    ③Secretary-General`s Report on the Enhancement of African Peacekeeping Capacity,S/1999/171;and SCRes1625(2005) Declaration on strengthening the effective of the SC`s role in conflict prevention, particularly inAfrica.
    ④非盟的网站:http://www.African-Union.org.
    ⑤S/PRST/2004/44.
    ⑥UN doc A/60/L.1(2005) para93.
    ⑦UN doc A/61/630, annex(2006).
    ⑧S/PRST/2007/7
    ①Abass,” The UN, the AU and the Darfur crisis”, Netherlands International Law Review(2007), p.416.
    ②苏丹政府,苏丹解放运动组织(the Sudan Liberation Movement)和正义和平等运动(the Justice andEquality Movement)之间缔结了协定(Abuja Protocol on the Improvement of the Humanitarian Situation inDarfur),2004年11月;AU Press Release,21December2004; SC Res1564(2004).
    ③SC Res1556,1564(2004),SC Res1590(2005)
    ①《中国外交》(2008版),中国外交部政策研究司编,第203页。
    ①CSCE Helsinki Document1992: The Challenge of change, available athttp://www.osce.org/mc/39530?download=true.
    ②陈须隆:《联合国与区域组织相互关系的一个范例》,载《联合国与区域组织相互关系的一个范例——试析联合国与欧安组织关系的建立和发展》,载《国际政治研究》,20000年第3期,第93页。
    ④关于格鲁吉亚冲突的资料和分析可参见:Neil MacFarlane,“The CIS and The OSCE in Georgia`s Wars”, inThomas Weiss(ed), Beyond Subcontracting:Task-Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements andService-Providing NGOs (Basingstoke, Macmillan,1998), pp.115-136,120.
    ⑤Neil MacFarlane,“The CIS and The OSCE in Georgia`s Wars”, in Thomas Weiss(ed), BeyondSubcontracting:Task-Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs (Basingstoke,Macmillan,1998), pp.119.
    ①OSCE Handbook1996(Vienna, OSCE,1996), p.21.
    ②参见欧安组织1992年赫尔辛基峰会上发表的《赫尔辛基》宣言。
    ③UN Doc S/RES/858,24August1993.
    ④Neil MacFarlane,“The CIS and The OSCE in Georgia`s Wars”, in Thomas Weiss(ed), BeyondSubcontracting:Task-Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs (Basingstoke,Macmillan,1998),p.122.
    ⑤UN Doc S/RES/937,21July1994.
    ②Protocol to Agreement on a Cease-Fire and Separation of Forces, mimeograph,引自Neil MacFarlane,“TheCIS and The OSCE in Georgia`s Wars” in Thomas Weiss(ed), Beyond Subcontracting:Task-Sharing with RegionalSecurity Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs (Basingstoke, Macmillan,1998),p.125.
    ③UN Dos S/RES/853,29July1993.
    ④UN Dos S/RES/822,30April1993.
    ①Dr. Thierry Tardy, Limits and Opportunities of UN-EU Relations in Peace Operation: Implications for DPKO,Geneva Centre for Security Policy, September2003.http://pbpu.unlb.org/pupb/view/viewdocument.aspx?id=2&docid=591.转引自梁文敏:《冷战后冲突干预的欧盟模式:动力、特点与影响因素》,复旦大学2008级硕士论文,第42页。
    ②喻锋:《欧洲安全战略实施绩效评估》,载《江南社会学报》2006年第3期,第18页。
    ③“欧盟表示愿意与联合国加强合作”,见http://news.qq.com/a/20070124/002426.htm
    ①张林初:《试析曲折发展中的欧洲防务联合》,载自《欧洲研究》,2006年第3期,第110页。
    ②梁文敏:《冷战后冲突干预的欧盟模式:动力、特点与影响因素》,复旦大学2008级硕士论文,第44页。
    ③Wolfgang Wagner, The Diplomatic Legitimacy of European Security and Defense Policy,Institute for SecurityStudies, Occasional Paper, April2007,p.57.
    ④梁文敏:《冷战后冲突干预的欧盟模式:动力、特点与影响因素》,复旦大学2008级硕士论文,第44页。
    ①Press Release Library/Miscellaneous, Brussels(11-12-1999)-Nr00300/1/99.See alsohttp://www.weu.int/eng/about.htm.
    ②Feira European Council: The Report on Strengthening the Common European Security and Defense Policy,http://eu.int/pecs/military/en/Feira.htm.
    ①梁文敏:《冷战后冲突干预的欧盟模式:动力、特点与影响因素》,复旦大学2008级硕士论文,第45页。
    ②关于本次冲突的详细背景介绍可参见:David Malone, Decision-Making in the UN Security Conflict: the Caseof Haiti,1990-1997(Oxford, Oxford University Press,1998).
    ①OAS-AG/RES1080(XXI-)/91/5June1991.
    ②OAS-MRE/RES/2/91,8.
    ③UNGA R/46/7,11October1991.
    ④OAS-MRE/RES4/92.
    ⑤UN Doc S/RES/814,16June1993.
    ⑥OAS-MRE/RES5/93,6June1993.h
    ⑦又称“毗邻谈判”,谈判双方各自占用相邻而被分隔开的场所,由调停人来往传话进行的谈判形式。
    ⑧UN Doc S/RES/861,27August1993; UN Doc S/RES/873,13October1993.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/940,31July1994.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/713,25September,1991.
    ②UN Doc S/RES/757,30May1992.
    ③UN Doc S/RES/787,16Nov.1992, Para12.
    ④参见Rosalyn Higgins,“Peace and Security:Achievement and Failures”,European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.6,1995, P.445.
    ⑤UN Doc S/RES/816,31March1993.
    ⑥UN Doc S/RES/743,21February1992.
    ①NATO resolution on “Recasting Euro-Atlantic Security”, NATO Doc AR295SA (1998).
    ③UN Doc S/RES/1031,15December1995.
    ①朱文奇:《北约对利比亚采取军事行动的合法性研究》,载《法商研究》2011年第4期,第106页。
    ①Lauterpacht in his Foreword in Weller (ed), Regional Peacekeeping and International Enforcement:The LiberiaCrisis, Cambridge International Law Series vol.6,(Cambridge University Press1994), p.ix.
    ②Monica Hakimi,“To Condone or Condemn: Regional Enforcement Action in the Absence of Security CouncilAuthorization”, Vand. J.Trans. L,Vol.40, pp.643-647,(2007).
    ①参见1992年《和平纲领》,第44段。
    ②同上,第45段。
    ③《和平纲领》中秘书长建议,执行和平行动比维和行动配备更多的重型武器,它是作为在《宪章》第四十条下成立的任务和一种临时办法。
    ④Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law (4thEdition), Cambridge University Press,1997, p.882.
    ①James E Hickey,“Challenges to Security Council Monopoly Power over The Use of Force in EnforcementActions: The Case of Regional Organizations,” International Legal Theory,Vol.10(Spring2004), p.114.
    ②UNCIO, Report of Mr. Paul-boncour, Rapporteur on Chapter VIII, Section B. Documents881, p.2.
    ③黄惠康:《论国际法上的集体安全制度》,武汉大学1990年博士学位论文,第46页。
    ①John F Murphy,“Force and Arms’” in Christopher Joyner(ed), the United Nations and International Law
    (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1999), pp.97-98.
    ②同上注,第30页。
    ③ND White and R Cryer,“Unilateral Enforcement of Resolution of687: A Threat of Too Far?”, CaliforniaWestern International Law Journal Vol.29,1999,p.243.
    ④Oscar Schachter in Christopher Joyner(ed), the United Nations and International Law (Cambridge, CambridgeUniversity Press,1999) p.10.
    ⑤D Ciobanu, Preliminary Objective Related to the Jurisdiction of the United Nations Political Organs (TheHague, Martinus Nijhoff,1975) p.50.
    ⑥UN Doc S/RES/688,5April,1991.
    ⑦UN Doc S/RES841,13October1993.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/940,31July1993.
    ②Nicole Itano,“Ivory Coast tests African Union”, Christian Science Monitor,7October2002, http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/1007/p0601-woaf.html.
    ③Revised Treaty of ECOWAS,(as amended by the Revised treaty),24thJuly1993, International Legal Materials(1996), p.660.
    ①AHG/Decl4(XXXVI), Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa8-9, May2000, Abuja, Nigeria, Principle k.
    ③具体分析可参见: Abass,“The New Collective Security Mechanism of ECOWAS: Innovations and Problems”,Journal of Conflict and Security, Vol.5, NO.2,p.211.
    ④HG Schermers and NM Blokkers, International Institutional Law,(The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,3rdedn,1995), pp.59-62.
    ①关于这几类罪行的定义可参见《国际刑事法院规约》(即《罗马规约》),其中第6,7和8条分别对上述三类罪行进行了界定。
    ②《非洲统一组织宪章》第19条规定:
    ①Ademola Abass and Mashood Baderin,“Towards Effective Collective Security and Human Rights Protection inAfrica: An Assessment of the Constitutive Act of the New African Union”,(2002), XLIX NetherlandsInternational Law Review1.
    ②《非洲联盟宪章》第7(1)条规定:“(非洲联盟)大会应以协调一致的原则通过决议,如果协调一致无法达成,大会可以成员国的三分之二多数来通过决议。但程序性问题或某问题是否属于程序性问题的决议可由简单多数通过”。
    ③该段话引自学者Abass就关于非洲联盟与联合国之间关系问题与Sam Ibok大使之间的谈话,参见AdemolaAbass, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII of the UNCharter,(Hart Publishing,2004), p.166.
    ①同上注。
    ②该意见同样引自学者Abass在2000年时与Roger Laloupo的谈话,参见同上注。
    ③J Cilliers,“The Evolving Security Architecture in Southern Africa”, African Security Review,Vol.4,1995, p.40.
    ④UN Doc S/1999/815.
    ①UN Doc S/RES/1316,23August2000.
    ②IRIN, DRC,24August2000.
    ③罗国强:《“人道主义干涉”的国际法理论及其新发展》,载《法学》2006年第11期,第86页。
    ⑤Peter Malanczuk, Humanitarian Intervention and the Legitimacy of the Use of Force, Het spinhuis,1993, p.19.
    ①International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect, at xi(2001),http://www.iciss.ca/pdf/Commission-Report.pdf.
    ②黄瑶:《从使用武力法看保护的责任理论》,载《法学研究》2012年第3期,第195页。
    ③参见该报告第六部分的内容。
    ①Reisman,“Coercion and Self-determination: Construing Charter Article2(4)”, American Journal ofInternational Law, Vol.78,1984, p.642; Reisman,“Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary InternationalLaw”, American Journal of International Law, Vol.84,(1990),p.866; D Amato,“The Invasion of Panama was aLawful Response to Tyranny”, American of International Law, Vol.84,(1990), p.516; Teson, HumanitarianIntervention: An Inquiry into Law and Morality (2ndedn,1997).
    ②Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force(2ndedn,2004), Oxford University Press, p.50.
    ③S/PV2902; SC Res940(1996).
    ①ECOWAS Doc A/SP3/5/81.
    ③Ademola Abass,“The New Collective Security Mechanism of ECOWAS: Innovations and Problems”, Journalof Conflict and Security, Vol.5, NO.2,2000.
    ①The ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework, Section VII, Article.40, Regulation MSC/REG.1/01/08,http://www.ecowas.int/publications/en/framework/ECPF_final.pdf
    ②Max A Sesay,“Civil War and Collective Intervention in Libria,” Review of African Political Economy, Vol.67,(1996), p.37.
    ②Gray,“Regional Arrangements and the United Nations”, in Fox(ed.), The Changing Constitution of the UnitedNations(1998), p.91.
    ①Max A. Sesay,“Civil War and Collective Intervention in Liberia”, Review of African Political Economy, Vol.23,Issue67,(Mar.,1996),p.41.
    ②罗建波:《西共体在利比里亚的维和行动反思》,载《西亚非洲》(双月刊),2002年第2期,第32页。
    ③Gray,”International law and the use of force”(2008), p.392.
    ②Ramsbotham and Woodhouse,‘Encyclopaedia of International Peacekeeping Operations’,(California,ABC-CLIO,1999).
    ③类似观点参见: Kofi Oteng Kufor,“The Legality of the Intervention in the Liberian Civil War by the EconomicCommunity of the West African States”, African Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol.5,1993,p.525; Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force (Oxford University Press),2008,p.237.
    ④UN S/Res788,19November,1992.
    ⑤SC Res866(1993).
    ①联合国秘书长在解释联利观察团任务的性质时如此阐述“联合国在实施科托努和平协议上所预见的作用基于以下的假设,即西非维和部队将在利比里亚各方赋予其权力的范围内承担广泛的任务”。参见联合国秘书长关于利比里亚问题的报告,UN Doc S/26422.
    ②UN Doc S/1995/158;1994United Nations Yearbook371.
    ④Final Report of the Secretary-General on UNOMIL, S/1997/712para5; Report of the Secretary–GeneralS/2003/875para3.
    ⑤UN Doc S/RES/866adopted at its3281stmtg,22September1993.
    ①UN S/Res788,19November,1992.
    ①Matchet`s Diary,“Bundu on new ECOWAS Imposes Peace”, West Africa Magazine,1-7February,1993.
    ②K Whiteman,“Towards Peace in Liberia”, West Africa Magazine,26November-2December1990, p.2895.
    ③UN S/PV.2974,22January1991, p.8.
    ④Gilbert da Costa,“Fresh Impetus for Peace”, West Africa Magazine,16-22November1992, p.1968.
    ①Georg Nolte,“Restoring Peace by Regional Action: International Legal Aspects of the Liberian Conflict”,Heidelberg Journal of International Law, p.614.
    ③Akehurst,“Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with special reference to the Organization of AmericanStates”, British Yearbook of International Law(1967), p.175.
    ①Kofi Oteng Kufuor,“The Legality of The Intervention in The Liberian Civil War by The Economic Communityof West African States”, RADIC,Vol.5,(1994),p.527.
    ②《卜拉希米报告》,UN S/2000/809,“对维持和平原则及战略的影响”下第48条,第7页。
    ①Africa Research Bulletin,15September1990,9802.
    ②该数据引自于:Monrovia interview,August1994.
    ③Georg Nolte,“Restoring Peace by Regional Action: International Legal Aspects of the Liberian Conflict”,Heidelberg Journal of International Law, p.614.
    ⑤Eric G. Berman and Katie E. Sams,“The Peacekeeping Potential of African Regional Organizations”, in JaneBoulden, Dealing With Conflict in Africa: The United Nations and Regional Organizations, published by PalgraveIacmillan,2003, p.43.
    ①Ugo Villani, The Security Council`s Authorization of Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations, MaxPlanck Yearbook of UN Law, Vol.6,2002, p.544.
    ①参见1969年《维也纳条约法公约》第三十一条第一项的规定。
    ②Christine M. Chinkin,“Kosovo: A Good or Bad War”, American Journal of International Law, Vol.93,NO.4,p.841.
    ③《北大西洋公约》第5条内容:《北大西洋公约》第五条内容:“各缔约国同意对于欧洲或北美之一个或数个缔约国之武装攻击,应视为对缔约国全体之攻击。因此,缔约国同意如此种武装攻击发生,每一缔约国按照联合国宪章第五十一条所承认之单独或集体自卫权利之行使,协助被攻击之一国或数国以恢复并维持北大西洋区域之安全。此等武装攻击及因此而采取之一切措施,均应立即呈报联合国安全理事会,在安全理事会采取恢复并维持国际和平及安全之必要措施时,此项措施应即终止。”
    ④孙焕为:《区域组织对联合国安理会的挑战——对20世纪主要国际事例的简要法律评析》,载《法学评论》2001年第1期,第86页。
    ①North Atlantic Council (Heads and Government),“The Alliance`s New Strategic Concept”, Rome,7-8November1991, p.8.
    ②NATO,Final Communique (Ministerial Meeting)[J].Oslo,4June1992, sect.11.
    ③刑骅:《北约转型路漫漫》,载《国际问题研究》2009年第4期,第48页。
    ⑤“The Alliance`s Strategic Concept”, NATO Press Release NAC-S(99)65,24Apr.1999, http://www.iac.rm.cnr.it/-spweb/documenti/nato-sc-original.pdf.
    ①NATO,“The Alliance’s Strategic Concept”,Washington,1999.p.32转引自师会娜:《冷战后北约的变化及其未来走向》,载《法制与社会》2009年第9期,第31页。
    ①NATO,“Active Engagement, Modern Defense-Strategic Concept for the Defense and Security of the Membersof the North Atlantic Treaty Organization”, adopted by the Heads of State and Government in Lisbon,http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-92726962-720EF3F1/natolive/official_texts_68580.htm.
    ②同上注。
    ③叶江:《从北约对利比亚军事行动透视美欧跨大西洋联盟新走势》,载《国际问题研究》2012年第1期,第91页。
    ①Eric, The NorthAtlantic Treaty, the Brussels Treaty and the Charter of the United Nations, The AmericanJournal of International Law, Vol.44(1950),p.795.
    ②《北大西洋公约》第六条规定,第五条所述对于一个或数个缔约国之武装攻击,包括对于欧洲或北美任何一缔约国之领、法国之阿尔及利亚、欧洲任何缔约国之占领军队、北大西洋区域回归线以北任何缔约国所辖岛屿、以及该区域内任何缔约国之船舶或飞机之武装攻击在内。
    ③Ademola Abass, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII ofthe UN Charter, Hart Publishing,2004,p.38.
    ④Legality of Use of Force(Yugoslavia v. Belgium), International Court of Justice(ICJ), Press Communique No99/17(29April,1999).
    ①Nigel White, The Legality of Bombing in the Name of Humanity, Journal of Conflict and Security Law,Vol.5,NO.1, p.27.
    ②同上,第37页。
    ③Alan Henrikson,“The Growth of Regional Organizations and the Role of United Nations”, in Louise Fawcettand Andrew Hurrel (eds), Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organizations and International Order (Oxford,Oxford University Press,1995), p.131.
    ④Chtistine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force.(Oxford, Oxford University Press,2000),p.206.
    ⑤H Kelsen, Is the North Atlantic Treaty a Regional Arrangement?, American Journal of International Law,Vol.45,1951, p.165..
    ⑥Blokker&Muller, NATO as the UN Security Council`s Instrument, Leiden Journal of International Law Vol.9,pp.417-421,1996.
    ⑦UN S/RES/816,31March,1993.
    ①事实上,北约早在1992年12月时就表示准备对联合国的行动进行协助。在一封北约秘书长代表成员国给联合国的信中,写到“我们现在确定我们联盟已做好提供支持的准备,跟胡各个案例的不同情况以及遵守本组织程序的基础上,支持在联合国权威之下的维持和平行动,安理会在维护国际和平与安全方面负有主要的责任。一旦联合国秘书长提出寻求联盟的支持来实现安理会决议的动议,我们将作出积极和正面的回应。”参见Final Communique, Ministerial Meeting of the NorthAtlantic Council, NATO Headquarters,Brussels,17December1992.
    ②参见西非经共体《互助防卫协定》第二条以及《美洲国家组织宪章》第三条第h项的规定。
    ③H Kelsen, Is the North Atlantic Treaty a Regional Arrangement? American Journal of International Law,Vol.45,1951, p.165..
    ①马细谱:《南斯拉夫解体和民族问题》,载《世界历史》1995年第5期,第59页。
    ①UN S/RES/1160,31March,1998.
    ③UN S/RES/1199(1998),23Sept.1998.
    ④UN S/RES/1203(1998),24Oct.1998.
    ①Ruth Wedgwood,“NATO`s Campaign in Yugoslavia”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.93,NO.4(Oct.,1999),p.829.
    ②Secretary-General`s Statement on NATO military action against Yugoslavia, M2Presswire, Mar.25,1999,available in LEXIS, Market Library, Iacnws File.
    ③Secretary-General`s Statement on NATO military action against Yugoslavia, M2Presswire, Mar.25,1999,available in LEXIS, Market Library, Iacnws File.
    ④Belarus, India, and Russian Federation: Draft Resolution, UN Doc. S/1999/328(Mar.26,1999), Reprinted inSecurity Council Rejects Demand for Cessation of Use of Force against Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, UN PressRelease SC/6659(Mar.26,1999)
    ⑥UN S/RES/1244,10June1999.
    ①Steven Wheatley,“The Foreign Affairs Select Committee Report on Kosovo: NATO Action and HumanitarianIntervention”, Journal of Conflict and Security Law(2000), Vol.5No.2, p.264
    ②Statement by President Bill Clinton Confirming NATO Air Strikes on Serb Military Targets, Fed. NewsServ.,Mar.24,1999;President Clinton Address to the Nations Regarding NATO Air Strikes against Serbia, Feb.News Serv., Mar.24,1999.
    ③Steven Wheatley,“The Foreign Affairs Select Committee Report on Kosovo: NATO Action and HumanitarianIntervention,” Journal of Conflict and Security Law(2000), Vol.5No.2, p.267
    ④参见英国下院外交事务特别委员会科索沃事件报告,第134段内容。
    ①Legality of Use of Force, International Court of Justice(ICJ), Press Communique No99/17(29April,1999).
    ②Greenwood在特别委员会上陈述关于对人道主义干涉权利的认可及其发展时的观点,参见该报告的第130段内容。www.publications.partliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmfaff/28/2802.htm.
    ⑤Report, Para.128.
    ①同上注,参见报告第132段内容。
    ②Deutscher Bundestag, Plenarprotokoll13/248,16October1998, at23129.转引自NATO, The UN and the Useof Force: Legal Aspects, European Journal of International Law, Vol.10,1999, p.14.
    ③Abraham D Sofaer,“International Law and Kosovo”, Stan. Journal of International Law, Vol.36, NO.1,(2000),p.15.
    ④Bruno Simma,“NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects”, European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.10,1999, p.5.
    ①UK Foreign Office Policy Document No.148, reprinted in British Yearbook of International Law,Vol.57,(1986),p.614.
    ①摘自北约秘书长索拉那1998年10月9日写给联合国驻北约理事会常任代表的信件,转引自Bruno Simma,NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, European Journal of International Law,Vol.10,1999,p.7.
    ③Nigel. D. White,“The Legality of Bombing in The Name of Humanity”, Journal of Conflict and Security Law,(2000), VOL.5, NO.1, p.41.
    ①Ruth Wedgwood,“NATO`s Campaign in Yugoslavia”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.93,NO.4(Oct.,1999),p.832.
    ②Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force(2ndEdition), Oxford University Press(2004), p.43.
    ③House of Commons`Foreign Affairs Select Committee, Forth Report on Kosovo: HC28-I/II (2000),para.126hereafter ‘Report’, Available at www.publications.partliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmfaff/28/2802.htm.,
    ①Bruno Simma,“NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects”, European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.10,1999, p.1.
    ②Bruno Simma, NATO,“NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects”, European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.10,1999, p.1.
    ①Alfred Verdross, Heribert Franz Koeck1,“Natural Law: The Tradition o f Universal Reason and Authority” inR.St. J. Macdonald, Douglas M. Johnston, The Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in LegalPhilosophy Doctrine and Theory (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers),1983
    ②《布莱恩条约》是美国与27个国家之间签订的双边条约的总称,这些条约对战争权作了实质性的限制。但这些限制只局限于具体的事件或特定的国家,因而只有部分的效果,未能从根本上限制战争权。
    ③《非战公约》开始普遍禁止战争,其第一条规定:“缔约各方以它们各国的名义郑重声明,它们斥责用战争来解决国际纠纷,并在它们相互关系上,废弃战争作为实行国家政策的工具”。
    ④【英】劳特派特修订,王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》(下卷,第一分册),第162页。
    ①D. W. Bowett, Self-Defense in International Law,(London: Manchester University Press),1958, p.13.
    ②实际上,整部《宪章》都回避了“战争”这一内涵不太确定的笼统用语,惟有在《宪章》序言中提及“战争的灾祸”一次是例外。
    ③C. H. M. Waldock, p.493页,沃尔多克教授认为,根据《联合国宪章》,为获取伤害补偿的武装报复或作为国家政策工具的任何武装干涉,除了自卫之外,都是非法的。转引自黄瑶,第40页。
    ④黄瑶:《论禁止使用武力原则——联合国宪章第二条第四项法理分析》,北京大学出版社2003年出版,第40页。
    ⑤一般认为,《宪章》第五十三条第一项,第一百零六条以及第一百零七条关于对前敌国的措施已经过时,且前文已对关于敌对国条款有过详细的阐述,所以这里不列入例外情况讨论。
    ⑥Louis Henkin, How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy, P.135.
    ⑦王铁崖:《国际法引论》,第297页。
    ①Ademola Abass, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII ofthe UN Charter, Hart Publishing,2004, p.183.
    ②Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Value, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1995,P.113.
    ⑤国际法院在“尼加拉瓜”案中援引了《国际法宣言》,该宣言中对认为武力不包括政治和经济的措施。
    ⑥关于该问题的讨论可参见:Ian Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by States,(Oxford ClarendonPress,1963); Derek Bowett, Self-Defense in International Law (Manchester, Manchester University Press,1958).
    ①许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社1999年出版,第40页。
    ②许光建主编:《联合国宪章诠释》,山西教育出版社1999年出版,第40页。
    ③黄惠康:《论国际法上的集体安全制度》武汉大学1990年国际法博士论文,第103页。
    ④R. Russell, A History of the United Nations Charter,1958, P.465.
    ①摘自国际法院前院长纳格德拉·辛格在尼加拉瓜案例国际法院判决中所附的法官个人意见。
    ②Oscar Schachter,“Coercion and Self-Determination: Constructing Charter2(4)”, American Journal ofInternational Law,Vol.78,1984,p.642.
    ③Verdross,“Jus Dispositivum and Jus Cogens in International Law”, American Journal of International LawVol.60,1966, p.5.
    ④Jimenez De Arechaga,“International Law in the Past Third of a Century”, Hague Recueil, Vol.158,1978, p.64.
    ⑤James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford Clarendon Press,1976).
    ⑥GA Christenson,“The World Court and jus Cogens”, American Journal of International Law,Vol.81,1987,p93.
    ⑦Weisburd,“the Emptiness of the Concept of Ius Cogens, as Illustrated by the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina”Michigan Journal of International Law.,Vol.17,(1995-96).
    ⑧Natalino Ronzitti,“Use of Force, Jus Cogens and State Consent” in A Cassese(ed), The Current LegalRegulation of the Use of Force (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1986), pp.147-149.
    ⑨Nicaragua Case (Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua) ICJ Reports99, at Para.187et sep.
    ①Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.187.
    ②Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.187.
    ③Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.186.
    ④Ian Brown,“The United Nations Charter and The Use of Force(1945-1985)”, in A Cassese, ed. The CurrentLegal Regulation of the Use of Force,(Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1986),P.493.
    ⑤Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.187.
    ①黄瑶:《论禁止使用武力原则:联合国宪章第二条第四项法理分析》,北京大学出版社2003年版,第55-56页。
    ②Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.187.
    ③1969年《维也纳条约法公约》第五十三条规定,条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制规律抵触者无效。就适用本公约而言,一般国际法强制规律指国家之国际社会全体接受并公认为不许损抑且仅有以后具有同等性质之一般国际法规律始得更改至规律。
    ④1969年《维也纳条约法公约》第六十四条规定,遇有新一般国际法强制规律产生时,任何现有条约与之该项规律抵触者即成为无效而终止。
    ⑤Christenson GA,“The World Court and Jus Cogens”, American Journal of International Law Vol.81,1987, p.96.
    ①国际法委员会对国家责任问题的法律编纂开始于1956年,前后经历过四任特别报告员的工作,最新一任的报告员为克劳福德(James Crawford)。联合国国际法委员会于1979年7月拟定了《关于国家责任的条文草案》,并于1980年和1990年两次对责任条文内容进行增录。2001年国际法委员会二读通过时该条文的标题改为《国家对国际不法行为的责任条文草案》。行文中如未特殊说明责任条文草案一般是指2001的文件。
    ②Charles de Visscher, Theories et realites en droit international (4thedn,1970),295-296,转引自Brownlie, p.154.
    ③参见《国家责任条文草案》,UN A/CN.4/517/Add.1.
    ④Fitzmaurice,关于条约法的第四次报告,《国际法委员会年鉴》,1959年,第二卷,第42页。
    ⑤王铁崖:《强行法》,载王铁崖主编:《中国法学大辞典·国际法学卷》,北京:中国检察出版社1996年版,第470页。
    ⑥Yoram Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self-Defense (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,3rdedn,2001),84et seq.
    ⑦黄茂荣:《法学方法与现代民法》,中国政法大学出版社2001年出版,第423页。
    ①潘德勇:《北方法学》,载第6卷总第31期,第126页。
    ②Paragraph (1) of Commentary of the Commission to Article50of its draft Articles on the Law of Treaties,(1966)II International Law Commission Yearbook at247.
    ③黄瑶:《论禁止使用武力原则——联合国宪章第二条第四项法理分析》,北京大学出版社2003年出版,第59-60页。
    ①Natalino Ronzitti,“Use of Force, Jus Cogens and State Consent”in A Cassese(ed), The Current LegalRegulation of the Use of Force (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1986),p.153.
    ②Natalino Ronzitti,“Use of Force, Jus Cogens and State Consent” in A Cassese(ed), The Current LegalRegulation of the Use of Force (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1986),p.150.
    ③Ademola Abass, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VII of theUN Charter, pp.197-201.
    ④同上注,第199页。
    ①Nicaragua case, ICJ Reports,1986, para.188.
    ②万鄂湘:《国际强行法与国际法的基本原则》,载《武汉大学学报(社会科学版)》1986年第6期,第48页。
    ①Yoram Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self-Defense (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,3rdedn,2001),p.82.
    ②【英】詹姆斯瓦茨修订;王铁崖、李适时等译:《奥本海国际法》(第一卷,第二分册),中国大百科全书出版社1998年出版,第635页。
    ③同上注。
    ①在文本的第二章中对“敌对国条款”有过详细的阐述,并得出结论认为有关内容已经过时。此外可参见Bruno Simma,“NATO, The UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects”, European Journal of InternationalLaw,Vol.10,1999,p.3.
    ①Brownlie, the United Nations Charter and the use of Force,1945-1985, in A. Cassese, op.cit., pp.500-501.转引自黄惠康:《论国际法上的集体安全制度》,武汉大学国际法博士学位论文,1990年,第128页。
    ①Military and Paramilitary Activities(Nicaragua Vs. US),1986,ICJ,14—126,(June,2007); David Wippman,“Military Intervention, Regional Organizations, and Host-State Consent”, Duke Journal of Comparative andInternational Law, Vol.7, pp.209,214-215(1996).
    ②为了作出有效的同意,同意必须可以归因于国家,换言之,同意必须由国际社会认为可以代表国家意志的个人来表达,除此之外,该个人还必须具备能力来显示其意志的表达与特定的事例相关。
    ③David Wippman,“Military Intervention, Regional Organizations, and Host-State Consent”, Duke Journal ofComparative and International Law, Vol.7, pp.209-210.
    ④联合国大会及安理会:《联合国和平行动专家小组报告》(《卜拉希米报告》,A/55/305——S/2000/809,2000年8月21日,第9页;及联合国维和行动部:《联合国维和行动:原则与指针》(联合国:纽约,2008年),第31——32页。
    ①联合国文件:A/CN.4/318&A/CN.4/318/Add.1-4,罗伯特·阿戈的第八次关于国家责任的报告(1979年)。
    ②赵建文:《国际法上的国家责任——国家对国际不法行为的责任》,中国政法大学博士学位论文,第89页。
    ③Louise Doswald Beck, The Legal Validity of Military Intervention by Invitation of the Government, BritishYearbook of International Law (1985),Vol.56, pp.228-237,1986.
    ④联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》,第232段。
    ①联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》,
    ②联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》。
    ③李寿平:《现代国际责任法律制度》,武汉大学出版社2003年出版,第130-131页。
    ①联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》,第241段。
    ②第五章的评论,第(3)段。转引自联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》,第221段。
    ③同上,第(5)段。转引自联合国文件:A/CN4/498/Add.2,特别报告员詹姆斯·克劳福德《关于国家责任的第二次报告》,第221段。
    ④Fitzmaurice,第四次报告,《国际法委员会年鉴》,1959年,第二卷,第41页。
    ①《国际仲裁裁决汇编》,第二十卷(1990),第251-252页(第75段)。
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    ①I.约翰斯通:“妥善处理同意问题:同意是新的变量吗?”, C.H.德科宁、A.O.斯登斯兰和T.塔迪合编:《超越“新地平线”:联合国维和行动未来挑战研讨会论文汇编》(2010年6月23——24日)(挪威国际事务研究所,奥斯陆,2010年),第25页——39页。
    ②Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force(2ndEdition), Oxford University Press(2004), p.303
    ①S/25402; Weller, Regional Peacekeeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Crisis, CambridgeUniverstiy Press,1994, p.280.
    ②同上,p.280.
    ①The Article4(h) of ‘Constitutive Act of the African Union’: The right of the Union to intervene in a MemberState pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely: war crimes, genocide andcrimes against humanity. Available at http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/ConstitutiveAct_EN.pdf
    ②Ademola Abass, The New Collective Security Mechanism of ECOWAS: Innovations and Problems, Journal ofConflict and Security Law(2000), Vol.5No.2, p.212.
    ③Peter E Harrell, Modern-Day “Guarantee Clauses” and the Legal Authority of Multinational Organizations toAuthorize the use of Military Force, Yale Journal of International Law, Vol.33, p.418.
    ④Morton H. Halperin,“Guaranteeing Democracy”, Foreign Policy,Vol.91,1993, p.105.
    ⑤Lori Fisler Damrosch, Panel Discussion at The Yale Journal of International Law's Sixth Annual YoungScholarsConference (Mar.1,2008).
    ①Ian Brownie, Principles of Public International Law,(Oxford University Press,1990), pp.512-513.
    ②David Wippman,“Treaty-Based Intervention:Who Can Say No?”, University of Chicago LawReview,Vol.62,NO.607,(Spring,1995), p.2.
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    ②Osar Schachter, International law in Theory and Practice, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1991,第113页。
    ③Margaret Vogt教授是联合国秘书处的工作人员,她同时是西非经共体1999协议起草时的专家人员。Meeting of Expert on the Draft Protocol Relating to the Mechanism on Conflict Prevention, Management,Resolution, Peace-keeping and Security,17-19November1999, Lome, Togo, p.6.
    ④N.Krisch,“Unilateral Enforcement of the Collective Will: Kosovo, Iraq, and the Security Council”,(1999) MaxPlank Yearbook of International Law Vol.3, p.59.
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