摘要
城市绿地系统作为城市生态系统的一个非常重要的组成部分,具有生态、经济、社会等多重属性,在维护城市生态系统稳定、形成城市景观、满足城市生态服务功能以及提高城市环境质量等方面起着积极的作用,如何维护和保持良好的城市绿地景观格局,使其生态服务功能最大化,是实现城市可持续发展的重要途径。目前,国内外关于城市绿地景观格局和生态系统服务功能的研究很多,但是将景观格局的变化作为因子,来考虑其生态服务功能的价值在国内外还比较少见,而且基本上以定性研究为主,定量分析的研究不多。
论文以长沙城区作为研究范围,以长沙市绿地现状图作为分析底图,在充分分析长沙城市绿地系统现状的基础上,利用遥感,GIS以及相关电脑辅助软件对其进行数字分析和运算,从而获得相应的景观格局的属性数据,如斑块的类型、数量、形状和面积,再根据这些数据对长沙市城市区域绿地景观的格局进行分析,获取相应的空间信息,并且对各类斑块进行系统性地比较,运用景观生态学结合城市规划的相关知识,提出长沙市市域范围内绿地斑块空间格局的优化对策。同时,根据国内外专家学者对生态系统服务功能的分类,结合长沙市城市绿地情况以及人们对长沙市城市绿地的开发利用现状,将长沙市城市绿地生态系统服务功能分成使用价值和非使用价值两大类,以林地生态服务价值系数的估算为基准,参考《中国陆地生态系统单位面积生态服务价值当量表》,对各类生态服务功能进行经济估算。研究结果表明：
景观格局方面：
(1)城市化进程中,长沙绿地系统逐步形成,绿地面积也逐年得到增加,绿化指标也呈增长趋势。1998年—2009年,绿地面积从2976hm2增加到了8134hm2,绿地率也由25.9%增加到了33.55%。各类绿地系统构成中,长沙市都市区绿地面积主要以单位附属绿地为主,其次为各类公园绿地、风景林绿地和居住区绿地,到2011年,公园绿地则占主导地位,其次为单位附属绿地和风景林绿地。
(2)通过对长沙城市绿地系统的分析得知,长沙城市非中心区域绿地率比中心区域要高,新建城区绿地率比老城区要高。而且各个区县之间存在较大差异,分布也不均匀。绿化主要是以单纯成片树林为主,其次为树草混种,屋顶绿化和垂直绿化虽然比重较小,但发展潜力大。
(3)景观格局分析中,巨型斑块的平均面积构成74.20%,；大型斑块的平均面积构成7.62%,大中型斑块的平均面积构成8.24%,中型斑块的平均面积构成8.36%,小型斑块的平均面积构成1.85%。从斑块数量所占比例分析,巨型斑块为9.07%,大型斑块为5.56%,大中型斑块为10.12%,中型斑块为32.26%,小型斑块为43.02%。可以看出,中小型斑块数量占相对优势,面积与大型斑块、大中型斑块相似,在整个城市绿地系统中发挥了重要作用。
(4)从城市绿地的景观格局分析得知,长沙城市绿地斑块破碎度较高,分维数数值总体较低,绿地景观的连通性较差,而且带状绿地分布较少,廊道密度较低。
(5)基于模糊数学的理论对长沙市各类型绿地系统进行测评,在总体绿地景观的评价中较优等的是公园绿地,该绿地类型在面积和数量、景观分离度等景观格局指数上都占有一定的优势；评价良好的是其它绿地,从面积比例和破碎度指数来看其他绿地占有一定地优势,但从整体的绿地率来看其他绿地的优势度不高；评价中等的是附属绿地,该绿地的绿地率虽然较高,但从景观格局分布来看它们都分布较散且不均匀,所以在综合的绿地景观评价中等级较低；综合评价中最差是防护绿地和生产绿地,这两种绿地在长沙市中无论从面积、景观格局的分布等各方面指标都较差,这需要在以后的绿地系统地构建中进行改造。
生态服务功能方面：
(1)从生态系统单项服务功能价值(ESV)来评价,长沙市近几年城市绿地生态服务功能存在一定的变化趋势：气体调节、气候调节、水源涵养、土壤形成和保护、废物处理、原材料、生物多样性保护和食物生产和娱乐文化价值在数量均都有所减少。其中,土壤形成与保护、水源涵养、气候调节、废物处理价值减幅最大。
(2)生态服务总价值在1999年至2009年间有所减少。1999年总区域生态系统服务价值总额(ESV)为1816.456×107元,2009年为1810.368×107元,即在此期间生态系统服务价值减少了6.088×107元。
(3)依据不同绿地景观格局的空间结构来分析其对于生态服务功能的影响：湿地斑块格局景观能显著降低气温、增加空气相对湿度、减弱噪声、降低S02、TSP污染物的污染等级,其中,降温效果达显著水平,增湿和减噪效果达极显著水平。林地斑块格局景观与水域斑块格局景观具有显著降温减噪、增加空气相对湿度、降低如S02、TSP等污染物等级的效果,尤其是降温效果极明显。
从以上研究结果分析得出：
(1)城市绿地廊道不完善,其总体水平从数量和质量上都达不到要求；绿地系统欠缺良好的规划,缺乏完善的量化体系,主要指标偏低,植物配置尚不完善,绿地景观质量不高。
(2)从格局要素的定量分析,长沙城市绿地系统呈现的是巨型斑块为主,中型斑块为辅,大型、大中型、小型斑块为补充的绿地景观格局。虽然大型板块面积占优,但是数量稀少,是生态格局中薄弱的景观要素。从各斑块格局的优势度和分维度分析,小型板块占据绝对优势,但大多集中在城市中心区域,破碎程度较高。
(3)不同的景观格局指数对空间尺度的变化有着不同的反应。依据斑块密度、平均面积、破碎度指数的结果表明景观破碎化程度随着粒度的增加而减少,而分离度随着粒度的增加呈现上升趋势。
(4)通过对长沙市不同景观绿地空间格局的结果分析和调节气体、净化空气、涵养水源及维持生物多样性等生态服务价值对比研究可以看出,湿地斑块的格局对生态服务功能的影响最大,水域次之,未利用地的斑块格局对生态服务功能的影响最小。
(5)2009年末,长沙市人口总数为6417367人,根据国家城市人均占有绿地标准,则至少需要绿地面积19251hm2,而现在的绿地还远达不到标准。而且,通过对城市碳氧平衡和SO2的排放吸收平衡的分析发现,长沙若要维持碳氧平衡还需要1694.62hm2的阔叶林,而要吸收所有SO2则需要868565.58hm2阔叶林,存在巨大缺口。
论文利用模糊数学理论评价了长沙城市绿地系统,分析了其景观格局特征,并且将景观格局的变化作为评价因子,对绿地系统调节功能和生态服务价值进行了研究,指出了长沙城市绿地系统景观格局存在的问题和不足,并且提出了相应的景观格局优化对策和途径,这在国内外都比较前沿。论文以景观生态学的理论为指导,将景观生态格局与生态服务功能引入长沙城市绿地的规划设计中,使各类景观功能有效融合而达到系统最优,这对长沙城市绿地系统的可持续发展具有重要的指导意义,也可为亚热带城市绿地的构建提供借鉴。
As a very important part of the urban ecological system, urban green ground system has ecological, economic and social function and possesses a remarkable place in the urban compound system. How to maintain and keep good urban green space landscape pattern, maximizing its ecological services is an important way of achieving sustainable urban development. At present, there have been many study of urban green space landscape pattern and function of ecosystem services but consider the landscape pattern changes as assessment factor to consider the value of ecosystem services is still relatively rare. And basically qualitative research-based, quantitative analysis of the study is small.
The thesis regards Changsha urban area as research range, with the green land current situation picture of Changsha as the basic picture, combining other map data,fields and investigate to divide into view types. Calculating and analyzing the above-mentioned maps, obtaining the corresponding attribute data with AutoCAD2009and GIS software, such as the type of the spot piece, quantity, shape and area, and then analyze the pattern of the urban area green land view of Changsha according to these data, obtain corresponding spatial information, and compare piece of all kinds of spots carrying on systematicness, using view ecology to combine the relevant knowledge of the urban planning, propose the optimization countermeasure of the land range inner green land spot piece space pattern of Changsha. Meanwhile, classify to ecosystem service function according to domestic and foreign experts and scholars, combine the urban green land situations and people's development and utilization current situations to the urban green land of Changsha, Divide the urban green land ecosystem service function in Changsha into two big kinds having use value and without use value, on a basis of estimation of the ecological service value coefficient in the forest land, consult" the ecological service value of the Chinese land ecosystem unit area acts as the scale ", estimate economy to all kinds of ecological service functions. The result of study shows:
Landscape pattern
(1) Changsha is improving its urban green space system during the Course of Urbanization. The greening construction develops rapidly and rate of greenery patches have greatly increased. From1998to2009,the green area in Changsha have increased from8134hm to2976hm2,the Ratio of Green Space have increased from25.9%to33.55%。In the composition of various types of green space system,institution affiliated Greenland occupy the most proportion, secondly is park irrigation and landscape forestry greening.In2011, park irrigation will account for a dominant position and then will be institution affiliated Greenland and residential area Greenland.
(2) Based on the analysis of landscape pattern, the average size of giant plaque composition of74.19%, large plaque composition7.67%, large and middle plaque composition of8.25%, medium sized plaque composition of8.06%,miniature plaque composition of1.83%.According to the above analysis of the data we can obtained percentage of the plaques which giant patches9.45%, large plaque5.12%,large and middle plaque10.63%, medium sized plaque32.28%,miniature plaque42.52%respectively.
(3) Fractal dimension is used to measure the complexity of patch shape indicators, it shows that the data more close to1.0,the more monotonous green shapes are and making it difficult to form a marginal effect. According to the data, the magnitude of fractal dimension in Changsha have a lower overall level and not obviously patch boundary,This is very unfavorable for Creating a diversity of landscape space and enhancing biodiversity in green space system.
(4) From the scale effect of landscape connectivity index, the index of the whole connectivity IIC is very low. In the6kinds of MMC,the average of IIC is:0.2771,0.3090,0.2725,0.2807,0.2674,0.3214separately; PC as the index of possible connectivity is relatively higher, in the6kinds of MMU, the average is:0.5012,0.4778,0.4605,0.4590,0.4681,0.5098separately, but it's only in the middle level. With the continuously increase of the searching range, the IIC and PC increases gradually in the6kinds of MMU, the change of PC is especially obvious, this explain that in the searching range of the larger ecological process, the same landscape connectivity is higher; but with the continuously increase of MMU, the IIC and PC change a little in the same searching range, it's not sensitive for the scale variation.
(5) Evaluating various types of green space in Changsha based on the fuzzy mathematics theory, making an overall assessment of the landscape green. We can draw the following conclusions:evaluation of excellence is park green space.Other green space has certain advantages in landscape pattern index such as quantity, area and landscape isolation. The better evaluation is other green space, although from the area proportion and fragmentation index, the productive plantation area occupies the dominant position. But according to the overall rate of green, productive plantation area's dominance is not high. Evaluation of medium is attached green space which is good from the distribution of the ratio green space.But the distribution Characteristics of Landscape Patterns is scattered and uneven. Therefore, it has the lower level in the evaluation system. The worst of the comprehensive evaluation is green area for environmental protection and productive green space, both green space in Changsha City in terms of area, the distribution of landscape pattern indicators are poor and other areas, which need to transform the system to build of the green space in the future.
Ecological service function:
(1) The general trend of the change in single service function value of eco-system in Changsha between1996-2004can be describe as follow:gas regulation,climate regulation,water conservation,soil formation and erosion control, waste treatment, raw materials, biodiversity conservation, food production and recreational and cultural value have declined in number. Among them, the value of soil formation and protection, water conservation, climate regulation, waste treatment declined at the maximum range.
(2) The total value of ecosystem services from1999to2009has decreased. The total value of ecosystem services (ESV) on total area in1996was1816.424×107yuan and it isl810.408×10'in2004, that is, during this period the value of ecosystem services has reduced6.016×10'yuan.
(3) Depending on the spatial structure of different green space landscape pattern to analyze the impact of ecosystem services for:excellent spot pattern landscape of green space can significantly reduce the temperature, increasing relative humidity, reduced noise and lower atmospheric SO2, TSP pollution levels of pollutants. Among them, the cooling effect up to a significant level,To small and medium-size green space plaques and green corridor uniform distribution pattern of the environmental effects of green space can also be reflected in the dust-cooling and noise reduction on the humidifier. However, the cooling effect slightly stronger than excellent spot pattern landscape, and dust-noise reduction is much weaker than excellent spot pattern and scape.
The results obtained from the above analysis:
(1) The corridor of urban green space is Inadequate, especially the overall level of quantity and quality can't meet the require; simultaneity the grass system lacks a good layout and perfect quantize system. The main guideline is low and the arrangement of plants are not perfection. In addition,the quality of grass view is also low.
(2) From the quantitative analysis of pattern elements, the urban green space system of Changsha show the green space landscape pattern which is mainly based on the giant plague, supplemented by the large,large-medium, small plague as well as the minor is medium plague. Yet the area of large plate occupy a dominant position, the number is rather rare, it's the weak landscape element of ecological pattern. From the analysis of dominance and fractional dimension of each block pattern, the small plague occupy a dominant position, but most is concentrated in the center area of the city, the degree of fragmentation is higher.
(3) Different spatial scales of landscape pattern index changes have different reactions. Based on patch density, average area, fragmentation index results showed that the degree of landscape fragmentation increases as the particle size decreases, while the resolution increases with the size of the upward trend.
(4) Through the analysis of four kinds results of Changsha City green space landscape spatial pattern and the air temperature, air relative humidity, ambient noise and atmospheric SO2,TSP levels and other environmental effects can be seen comparing observations, excellent spot pattern, the pattern of spots evenly, corridor pattern and control of4different types of landscape pattern in the total plaque area, plaque area and non-green building roads and other landscape areas on the overall pattern is more balanced
(5) At the end of2009, the total population in Changsha is6417367, then it needs19251hm2green area, however, the green area at present is far less than the standard. And according to the balance of carbon and oxygen in city and the analysis of emission and absorption of so2, to maintain the oxygen balance,1694.62hm2broadleaf forest is must, but, if it want to absorb all so2, it will need868565.58hm2 broadleaf forest, there is a huge gap between them.
This paper use the theory of fuzzy mathematics to evaluate Changsha urban green space system, analysing its landscape patterns and takes the changes in the landscape pattern as evaluation factors to study green space system regulation and the value of ecosystem services. These theories are cutting-edge theory in our country. This paper regard landscape ecology as guidelines and bring pattern of landscape ecology and ecosystem services into planning and design of urban green space in Changsha making various types of landscape features effective integration to achieve optimum system. It has an important significance in Changsha sustainable development of urban green space system and also for the construction of sub-tropical urban green space to provide reference.
引文
[1]李铮生.城市园林绿地规划与设计[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社,2006.35-49
[2]省委、省政府进一步研究长株潭一体化发展战略[N].三湘资讯,2003.
[3]肖笃宁.景观生态学[M].北京：科学出版社,2003,3-5
[4]彭勇,肖玲,崔海波,等.论长沙城市形象定位与塑造[J].湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版),2006,28(4)：38-40.
[5]肖笃宁.景观生态学研究进展[M].长沙：湖南科技出版社,1999：127.
[6]傅伯杰,陈利顶,马克明,王仰麟.景观生态学原理及应用[M].北京：科学出版社,2002：12-19.
[7]曹宇.第十六届美国景观生态学年会(2001年)在亚利桑那州召开[J].生态学杂志,2001，4：26-29
[8]邬建国.景观生态学—一格局、过程、尺度与等级[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2000
[9]Lucla P H, Saura S. Comparis on and devel opment of new graph2 based landscape connectivity indices:towards the p riorization of habitat patches and corridors for conservation. Landscape Ecology,2006,21 (7):9592967.
[10]韩文权,常禹,胡远满.景观格局优化研究进展[J].生态学杂志,2005,24(12)：87-92.
[11]Karen A, Poiani. A scale—independent, site conservation planning framework in The Nature Conservancy[J]. Lands cape and Urban Planning,1998,43:143-156.
[12]王翠娟.成都市中心城区绿地系统生态服务功能价值评估研究[J].2008
[13]李锋,王如松.城市绿地系统的生态服务功能评价、规划与预测研究.生态学报2003：23(9)
[14]London planning Advisory Committee. Open Space Planning in London[M].London:Artillery House,1992.
[15]刘滨谊；姜允芳中国城市绿地系统规划评价指标体系的研究[J]-城市规划汇刊2002(02)：56-61
[16]中国人名共和国建设部.CJJ/T91-2002,《园林基本术语标准》[S].中国建筑工业出版社.2002.
[17]吴人伟.城市绿地的分类[J].中国园林,1999,1(6)：59-61.
[18]F.B.Golley. A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology:More Than the Sum of the Parts[M]. New York:Yale University Press,1996
[19]催树澜.景观生态学发展及前景[J].冀东学刊,1995,(2)：32-34.
[20]Forman R T T,Godron M. Landscape Ecology[M].New York:John Wiley & Sons,1986
[21]Michael P. Masser. Water Garden, Southern Regional Aquaculture Center Publication [M]. No.435,Mareh199
[22]李秀珍,肖笃宁.城市的景观生态学探讨[J].城市环境与城市生态；1995,02)
[23]傅伯杰.景观生态学的对象和任务[A].见：肖笃宁主编.景观生态学：理论、方法及应用[C].北京：中国林业出版社,1991：26-29
[24]刘建国.当代生态学博论[M].北京：中国科学技术出版社,1996.
[25]邬建国.景观生态学——概念与理论[J].生态学杂志,2000,19(1)42-52.
[26]李伟峰,欧阳志云,王如松等.城市生态系统景观格局特征及形成机制[J].生态学杂志,2005,24(4)：482-432.
[27]David B, Kittredge J R, Andrew O, et al. Timber harvesting as ongoing disturbance in a landscape of diverse ownership[J]. Forest Ecology and Management,2003,180:425-442.)
[28]车生泉.城市绿色廊道研究[J].城市生态研究2001,2(11)：44-48.
[29]何书金.全国城市景观生态学学术研讨会在深圳召开[J].地理学报,2006,02
[30]马世骏,王如松.社会-经济-自然复合生态系统[J].生态学报,1984,4(1)
[31]李中秋；城市景观生态学的发展方向及其可操作性[J]；环境科学动态；1995年04期67-71
[32]Daily GC,eds.Nature's Service:Social Dependence on Natural Ecosystems [M]. Washington DC:Island Press,1997
[33]Cairns J. Protecting the delivery of ecosystem service.Ecosys Health,1997,3(3): 185—194.
[34]Costanza R, d' Arge R, Rudolf de Groot,et al. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital.Nature,1997,387:253-260.
[35]Carins J. Protecting the delivery of ecosystem services.Ecosystem Health, 1997,3(3):185-194.
[36]王道波.周晓果,张广录,等.作物空间布局的灰色系统决策方法探讨[J]干旱地区 农业研究,2005(1)：149-156.
[37]Krenter U P;Heather G H;Marty D M Change in ecosystem service values in the San Autonio area,Texus[J] 2001(03):89-92
[38]张志强,徐中民,程国栋.生态系统服务与自然资本价值评估[J].生态学报,2001,21,(11)1：56-59
[39]李晓文,胡远满,肖笃宁.景观生态学与生物多样性保护[J].生态学报,1999,19(3)
[40]俞孔坚Landscape ecological security patterns in biologcal conservation[J]-生态学报1999(01)
[41]肖笃宁,李秀珍,高峻等.景观生态学[M].北京：科学出版社,2003：4-5
[42]Frohn RC.1998, Remote sensing for landscape ecology[M]. New York:CRC Press.车生泉.2001,城市绿色廊道研究[J].城市生态研究,2(11)：44-48.
[43]傅伯杰.景观生态学原理及方法[M].北京：科学出,2002.53-57
[44]高峻,杨名静,陶康华.2000,上海城市绿地景观格局的分析研究[J].中国园林,16(1)：53-56。
[45]郭晋平,张芸香.2002,城市景观及城市景观生态研究的重点[J].中国园林,18(2)：44-46.
[46]Zev Naveh(李秀珍,冷文芳,解伏菊等译)Landscape Ecology:Theory and Applications[M]北京：高等教育出版社
[47]吴泽民.2003,合肥市城市森林景观格局分析[J].应用生态学报,14(12)：2117-2122
[48]高峻,杨名静,陶康华.2000,上海城市绿地景观格局的分析研究[J].中国园林,16(1)：53-56.
[49]王胜.景观结构特征数量化方法概述.河北林果研究.1999,4(2)
[50]周文佐,潘剑君,刘高焕.2002,南京市城市绿地现状遥感分析[J].遥感技术与应用,17(1)：22-26.
[51]胡勇,赵媛.2004,南京城市绿地景观之初步研究[J].中国园林,11(2)：34-36.
[52]王浩.2003,城市生态园林与绿地系统规划[M].北京：中国林业出版社.2003.6
[53]Frohn RC.1998, Remote sensing for landscape ecology[M]. New York:CRC Press.
[54]李书娟,曾辉.2002,遥感技术在景观生态学研究中的应用[J].遥感学报,6(3)：233-240.
[55]王天明,王晓春,国庆喜等.哈尔滨市绿地景观格局与过程的连通性和完整性[J].应用与环境生物学报,2004,10(4)
[56]吴金友,吴毅.长沙城市绿地景观格局分析研究[J].应用研究.中国林业出版社.2007：536-543
[57]陈菲冰.成都市中心城区绿地系统景观格局分析与优化[D].西南大学,2008
[58]张献生.略论面向未来的“山水城市”构型[J].中国园林,1993,9(4)：10-14.
[59]吴人韦.国外城市绿地的发展历程[J].城市规划,1998,22(6)：39-43.
[60]岳德鹏,王计平,刘永兵等.GIS与RS技术支持下的北京西北地区景观格局优化[J].地理学报.2007：62(11)
[61]赵晓燕.刘康.秦耀民.基于GIS的西安市城市景观格局分析及其优化对策[D].生态学杂志,2007,26(5)：706-711
[62]夏丽华,宋梦.经济发达地区城市生态服务功能的研究[J].广州大学学报,2002,(3)：71-74.
[63]于书霞,尚金城,郭怀成.生态系统服务功能及其价值核算[J].中国人口、资源与环境,2004,14(5)：22-25.
[64]Dalily GC. Natures Service:societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems [M]. Washington DC:Island Press.1997:12-13.
[65]Rorbert Costanza. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital[J].Nature,1997,38(15):253-260.
[66]Cairns.J.Protecting the Delivery of Ecosystem Service.Ecosystem[J]. Health, 1997,3 (3):155-194.
[67]赵景柱,徐亚骏,肖寒,等.基于可持续发展综合国立的生态系统服务评价研究—13个国家生态系统服务价值的测算田[J].系统工程理论与实践,2003,(1)：121-127.
[68]欧阳志云,王如松,赵景柱.生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值评价[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(5)：635-640.
[69]董全.生态功益：自然生态过程对人类的贡献率[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(2)：233-240.
[70]徐立.土地利用变化对长沙市生态系统服务价值的影响研究[J].2010
[71]朱翔,周国华,贺清云,等.推进湖南城市化进程研究[M].长沙：湖南大学出版,2002.
[72]李雪铭,常静,刘敬华,等.城市绿地系统对经济发展提升作用的机制[J].干旱区资源与环境,2002,(3)：17-23
[73]刘社.环境美的房地产才能获得高回报[J].城乡建设,1998,(5)：24-25
[74]周国华,杨利.长沙市三产业结构优化研究[J].热带地理,2001,21(2)：150-155.。
[75]余剑平.长株潭”两型社会”建设背景下政府管理的困境与出路[J].文史博览(理论),2010(8)
[76]李金艳,郭冀宏,袁吕林.浅谈单位庭院绿化规划[J].河北林业科技,2001,(2)：52-54.
[77]周国华,杨利.长沙市三产业结构优化研究[J].热带地理,2001,21(2)：150-155.。
[78]张峻岭,葛书红.山水城市绿地系统规划探讨[J].湖南林业科技,2001,28(1)：71-73.
[79]邓学建,肖宏,戴海明.岳麓山自然景观兽类资源调查[J].湖南林业科技,1996,23(2)：54-57.
[80]张明.岳麓山风景林季相特色植物及其评价[J].湖南林业科技1997,24(1)：58-62.
[81]贺军辉.长沙岳麓山野生观赏植物及其利用[J].湖南林业科技,1990,17(4)：41-44.
[82]彭映辉,许万景.岳麓山的主要植被类型及其分布[J].湖南林业科技,1992,19(4)：59-61.
[83]王振中,张友梅,胡觉莲.长沙岳麓山森林生态系统中土壤动物群落结构的研究[J].湖南师范大学学报,1990,13(3)：268-274.
[84]唐薇频,屈金轶.打造生态与文化交融的湘江一带融三城[N].三湘资讯,2003.
[85]王振中,张友梅,胡觉莲.长沙岳麓山森林生态系统中土壤动物群落结构的研究[J].湖南师范大学学报,1990,13(3)：268-274.
[86]长沙市景观格局定量优化研究.2008,121-126
[87]华昇.基于GIS的长沙市景观格局定量分析与优化研究[D].2008年.湖南大学
[88]魏斌.1997,城市绿地生态效果评价方法的改进[J].城市环境与城市生态,10(4)：54-55.
[89]王浩.城市生态园林与绿地系统规划[M].北京：中国林业出版社.2003,
[90]R福尔曼等(肖笃宁等译).景观生态学.北京：科学出版社,1990：1.47
[91]Whitchand J.MR.The urban Landscape:Historical Development and Management. London:Academia Perss,1981:25-54
[92]肖笃宁,景观生态学一理论方法和应用.北京：中国林业出版社：1991
[93]Matthew L, Jianguo W. A gradient analysis of urban. Landscape pattern:a case study from the Phoenium etropolitan region, Arizona, USA. Landscape Ec0109y, 2002,17(4):327-339)
[94]William F.The ecology of urban landscapes:modeling hoursing starts as a density-dependent.colonization process[J].Landscape Ecology,2001,16(1):33-39
[95]JHaaserg.Landschafts sokologische. Detail untersuchung and naturrauliche Gliederung [A].Pet.Geogr.Mitt.1964:1-2.
[96]傅伯杰,陈利顶,马克明.2001,景观生态学原理及应用[M].北京：科学出版社.
[97]Van Wirdrum Cx 1981."Ecodivice",first International Congress on Landscape ecology[A]. Voldlloven. April 1981.。
[98]肖笃宁,钟林生.1998景观分类与评价的生态原则[J].应用生态学报,9(2)：217-221.
[99]东陵区景观格局的变化Fu BJ,1995;Mander,1998;肖笃宁等,1990；王兮之等,2002：69-75
[100]曹小娟,曾光明,张硕辅等.基于RS和GIS的长沙市生态功能分区[J].应用生态学报,2006,17(7)
[101]刘木生,林联盛,郭秋忠.基于GIS的生态功能分区技术方法刍议[J].江西农业学报,2008(10)
[102]徐岚,赵羿.利用马尔柯夫过程预测东陵区景观格局的变化[J].应用生态学报,1993,4(3)：272-277
[103]遥感技术在景观生态的研究Turner,1991;李哈滨等,沈国舫,1992.
[104]Anderson JR., Hardy EE., Roach J T., et al. A Land use and land cover classification system for use with Remote sensor Data [C].U.S. Geological Survery Professional Paper 964, Reston, VA:U.S. Geological survey.1976.
[105]杨国靖,肖笃宁.森林景观格局分析及破碎化评价.以祁连山西水自然护区为例[J].生态学杂志,2003,22(5)：56-61
[106]李书娟,曾辉.遥感技术在景观生态学研究中的应用[J].遥感学报,2002,6(3)：233-240
[107]李秀珍,布仁仓等.景观格局指标对不同景观格局的反应[J].生态学报.2004,24(1)：23-134
[108]王仰麟.景观生态分类的理论与方法[J].应用生态学报,1996.7(Sup)：121-126
[109]Forman RTT.Land Mosaics:The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions.New Ybrk:ambridge University Press,1995
[110]Taylor P,FahringL,Henein K, etal. Connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure. Oikos,1993,68(3):571-573
[111]Philippe C,Burel F. The role of spationtemporal patch connectivity at the landscape level:an example in a bird distribution.Landscape Urban Planning,1997,38:37-43
[112]Milne BT.Spatial aggregation and neutral models in fractal landscape[J].The American Naruralist,1992,139(1):32-57
[113]肖荣波,周志翔,王鹏程等.3S技术在城市绿地生态研究中的应用[J].生态学杂志，2004,23(6)：71-76
[114]杨定海.岳麓山风景名胜区景观分析评价研究[J].中南林学院.2004
[115]廖飞勇.风景园林生态学[M].中国林业出版社,2010.1,207-208
[116]李峰,王如松.城市绿地系统的生态服务功能评价规划与预测研究——以扬州市为例.生态学报.2003.9,9(23)：1930-1934
[117]Wang R S,Chi J,Ouyang Z Y.Eco-integration for sustainable development of middle and small sized towns.Beijing:Meteorologic press,2001.29-36.
[118]Krenter U P,Heather G H,Marty D M,et al.Change in ecosystem service values in the San Autonio area,Texus. Ecological Economics,2001,39(3):333-346.
[119]COSTANZAR, DARGE R, DEGROUT R, etal. Thevaluoftheworld's services and natural ecosystem capital[J]Nature,1997,387:253—260.
[120]Costanza R d, Arge R, de Groot R, et al. The value of the world'S ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature,1997,387:253-260
[121]龚克.程道品城市生态景观的特征与构建研究[J].山西建筑2006(3)
[122]程政红.吴际友.侯伯鑫.程勇.宋庆安.余格非长沙城市森林建设树种大树移栽圃地囤积调查及思考[J].中国城市林业,2006(3)
[123]黄光宇,陈勇,田玲.生态规划方法在城市规划中的应用-以广州科学城为例1999(06)
[124]徐立.土地利用变化对长沙市生态系统服务价值的影响研究[J].2010
[125]欧阳志云,王如松,赵景柱.生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值评估.应用生态学报,1999,10(5)：635-640
[126]US-SGCR/CENR. Our Changing Planet the FY 1995 US Global Change Research Program. Washington D. C., USGCRIO,1995
[127]Turner B L., Skole D, Sanderson S., et al. Land use and Land cover Change: Science&Research Plan. IGBP Report No.35 and HDP Report No.7 Stockholm and Geneva,1995
[128]段瑞娟.北京土地利用系统的生态服务价值变化研究：[D].北京：中国农业大学,2006,3
[129]李忠武,曾光明,张华,等.GIS支持下的红壤丘陵区脆弱生态环境综合评价一一以长沙市为例[J].生态环境,2004,13(3)：358-361
[130]谢高地,鲁春霞,冷允法,等.青藏高原生态资产的价值评估.自然资源学报,2003,18(2)：189-196
[131]TURNER B L Ⅱ, SKOLE D, SANDERSON S, et al. Land-useand land-cover changel 3cience/re5earch plan[R]. IGBP Report No.35/HDP Report No7.Stockholm:1GBP,1995.
[132]段瑞娟.北京土地利用系统的生态服务价值变化研究：[D].北京：中国农业大学,2006,3
[133]谢高地,肖玉,鲁春霞.生态系统服务研究：进展、局限和基本范式.植物生态学报,2006,30(2)：191.199
[134]Guo, Z. W., Xiao, X. M., Gan, Y. L., Zheng, Y. J.,2001. Ecosystem functions, services and their values:a case study in Xingshan County of China. Ecological Economics.38.141—154。
[135]赵景柱,肖寒.生态系统服务的物质量与价值量评价方法的比较分析应用[J].生态学报,2000,11(2)：290-292
[136]薛达元,包浩生,李文华.长白山自然保护区森林生态系统间接经济价值评估.中国环境科学,1997,19(3)：247-252
[137]周晓峰,赵慧勋,孙慧珍.正确评价森林水文效应.自然资源学报,2001,16(5)：420-426
[138]薛达元,包浩生,李文华.长白山自然保护区森林生态系统间接经济价值评估.中国环境科学,1997,19(3)：247-252
[139]KathleenLWolf.2004. Economics andPublicValue ofUrban Forests. Urban forests are green infrastructure.12:31-33
[140]Li Jing, Ren Zhiyuan. Changes in Ecosystem Service Values on the Loess Plateau in Northern Shaanxi Province, China. Agricultural Sciences in China, 2008,7(5):606-614
[141]欧阳志云,王如松等.中国生物多样性间接价值评估初步研究.见：王如松等主编.现代生态学的热点问题研究.北京：中国科学技术出版社,1996：409-421
[142]Kreuter, U. P., Harris, H. G, Matlock, M. D., et al. Change in ecosystem service lues in the San Antonio area, Texas. Ecological Economics,2001,39, 333-346
[143]武立磊.生态系统服务功能经济价值研究综述.林业经济,2007,3：41-46
[144]长白山自然保护区森林生态系统间接经济价值评估[J].资源学,1998(2)：82-87.
[145]王军,傅伯杰,陈利顶.景观生态规划的原理和方法[J].资源科学,1999(2)：71-76.
[146]俞孔坚,李迪华.城乡与区域规划的景观生态模式[J].国外城市规划,1997(3)：27-31
[147]Juan Antonio, Vassilios Andrew Tsihrintzis, Leonardo Alvarez.South Florida greenways:a conceptual framework for the ecolog-ical reconnectivity of the region[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,1995,33:247-266.
[148]俞孔坚,段铁武.生物多样性保护的景观规划途径[J].生物多样性,1998(3)：205-212
[149]Ferenc Jordan.A reliability-theory approach to corridor design[J].Ecological Modeling,2000,128:211-220.
[150]贾宝全,杨洁泉.景观生态规划：概念、内容、原则与模型.干旱区研究,2000,17(2)：70-77
[151]Betflnger P.Challenges and opportunities for linking the modeling of forest dynamics with landscape planning models[J].Landscape Urban Plan.2001,56: 107-124
[152]刘常富,陈玮.园林生态学[M].北京：科学出版社,2003.248-251
[153]韩文权,常禹,胡远满,等.景观格局优化进展.生态学杂志,2005,24(12)：1487-1492
[154]肖笃宁,高峻,石铁矛.景观生态学在城市规划管理中的应用.地球科学进展,2001,16(6)：813-820
[155]关文彬,谢春华,马克明.景观生态恢复与重建是区域生态安全格局构建的关键途径.生态学报,2003,23(1)：64-73
[156]何春阳,陈晋,史培军,等.大都市区城市扩展模型——以北京城市扩震模拟为例[J].地理学报,2003,58(2)：294-304
[157]White R, Engelen G Cellular automata and fractal urban form:a cellular modeling approach to the evolution of urban land—use patterns. Environment and Planning A,1993,25(8):1175-1199
[158]章家恩,徐琪.现代生态学研究的几大热点问题透视.地理科学进展,1997,16(3)：29-37.
[159]黄光宇,陈勇.生态城市理论与规划设计方法.北京：科学出版社,2002,101-108.
[160]沈清基.城市生态与城市环境.上海：同济大学出版社,1998,363-369
[161]徐波.谈城市绿地系统规划的基本定位[J].城市规划,2002,26(11)：20-22.
[162]车生泉.城市绿色廊道研究.城市规划,2001,25(11)：44-48
[163]达良俊,杨永川,陈鸣.生态型绿化法在上海“近自然”群落建设中的应用[J].中国园林,2004,(3)：38-40
[164]杨锐.景观城市主义在工业废弃地改造中的应用——以美国马萨诸塞州军事保护区的景观再生为例[J].现代城市研究.2008,23(10)
[165]朱艳.城市废弃地生态恢复与景观重建途径研究[D].天津.南开大学.2009
[166]张健健.从废弃军事基地到城市公园——多伦多当斯维尔公园设计及其启示.规划师,2006,3(22)：94-96
[167]曾誉.长沙市垂直绿化选择及应用研究[D].湖南：中南林业科技大学.2009
[168]Levinem D, Adetm T. Global carbon emissions in the coming decades:the case of China[J]. Annual Review of Environment and Resources.2008,33(11):1-39.
[169]张勇.厦门岛绿化树种多样性与生态园林建设的研究[D].福建：福建农林大学.2002
[170]高丽旭.曲江胜地生态环境变迁研究[D].长安大学.2008：10-60
[171]孙玉梅.长沙园林研究[D].中南林业科技大学.2005.
[172]张华如.基于景观生态学的城市绿地空间格局优化——以合肥市为例[J].现代城市研究.2008.23(12)
[173]姜晨.城市边缘区绿地景观保护与规划研究——以济南市某边缘区为例[D].山东建筑大学.2009
[174]张振龙,李少星,张敏.法国城市空间增长：模式与机制[J].城市发展研究.2008.15(4)：96-98
[175]赵彦伟,杨志峰.城市河流生态系统健康评价初探.水科学进展,2005,16(3)：349-355.
[176]王仰麟.景观生态分类的理论与方法.应用生态学报,1996,7(4)：121.126.
[177]Edward W O. The Diversity of Life. Cambridge MA:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1992
[178]马尔特.生态系统管理—科学与社会问题。科学出版社,北京：2003,80