摘要
阿尔及利亚战争是1954-1962年阿尔及利亚民族主义武装力量反对法国殖民统治、争取民族独立的战争。这场战争使阿尔及利亚在经历了130多年的法国殖民统治之后最终获得独立,也使法兰西殖民帝国在经历了痛苦的挣扎之后彻底崩溃。但是,阿尔及利亚战争并不仅仅是法国和阿尔及利亚之间的一场一般意义上的战争。首先,阿尔及利亚战争与当时的两个时代特征,即冷战和两极格局的延续和发展,以及第三世界的崛起和殖民主义的崩溃存在着密切而深刻的联系;其次,美国在这场战争中自始至终都起到了微妙但又极其重要的作用。因此阿尔及利亚战争不仅是战后国际关系史上的重要事件,也是研究冷战时期美国外交政策的一个极好的个案。
阿尔及利亚战争期间,阿尔及利亚民族主义运动的领导力量——民族解放阵线在坚持武装斗争的同时,积极在国际舞台上展开各种外交活动,为阿尔及利亚的民族解放事业争取外援和支持,从而使阿尔及利亚战争从一开始就呈现出国际化的趋向。面对民族解放阵线对殖民统治的挑战,法国政府采取了镇压和安抚并举、但以镇压为主的政策,而由于法兰西第四共和国政体的孱弱和混乱,法国历届政府都无法解决阿尔及利亚问题。1958年第四共和国崩溃和第五共和国建立后,法国在戴高乐的领导下逐步采取开明的政策,最终于1962年允许阿尔及利亚独立,结束了这场长达七年的血腥战争。而美国在战争期间也根据形势的变化在不同阶段采取了不同的政策:从起初的“消极的中间偏右”到后来积极而主动地充当阿尔及利亚问题和平解决的催化剂。通过对美国的阿尔及利亚战争政策的研究可以得出以下结论:虽然苏联因素并没有直接介入阿尔及利亚战争,但“冷战思维”这一指导思想始终操纵着美国决策人在阿尔及利亚问题上的立场和态度。战后到20世纪60年代美国对非洲政策的实质,是在保持非洲大陆的稳定的基础上,力求英法等欧洲殖民国家能够维持其在非洲已独立国家和未独立殖民地的传统利益和势力范围,一来可以阻止苏联对非洲的渗透,二来确保非洲国家在意识形态上至少在东西方两大阵营之间保持中立。
The Algerian War, also known as Algerian War of Independence, from November 1, 1954 to July 3, 1962, led to Algeria's independence from France and ended more than 130 years of French colonial rule over Algeria and the French colonial empire itself. But the Algerian War was not simply a war between France and Algeria. Firstly, the Algerian War was closely related to the two characters of that time, i.e. the development of the Cold War and the rise of the Third World and the collapse of the colonialism. Secondly, though indirect and delicate, the character of the United States in the Algerian War was significant throughout the war. Above all, the Algerian War is not only an important event in the international history of the post-World War II, but also a very good case in the study of the US foreign policy of the Cold War.
During the war, the National Liberation Front (Front de Liberation Nationale, FLN), founded in 1954, created the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale, ALN) to engage in armed struggle against French authority, and at the same time actively launched diplomatic offensives on the international arena to win over other countries, especially the Asian and African countries, to support and reinforce the national movement of the Algerian people. The French government, facing the challenge of the FLN, worked along both of repressing and appeasing, but gave priority to the former. Because of the instability of the French Fourth Republic, all of the French governments between 1954 and 1958 had no ability to solve the Algerian problem. After the breakdown of the Fourth Republic and the foundation of the Fifth, the French government, under General De Gaulle, gradually changed the Fourth Republic's fault and began to adopt free policies to Algeria, which finally brought independence to Algeria in 1962 and ended the Algerian War. According to the changing of the situation of the Algerian War and the Cold War, however, the United States showed different positions in different eras: first the policy of "middle-of-the-road but a little to right", and then actively and initiatively serving as catalyst to the finding of the solution to the Algerian problem. Though the study of the US's policy towards the Algerian War we could conclude that although the Soviet elements did not directly intervene into the war, the position of the policy makers of the United States were guided by the Cold War mentality during the Algerian War. The substance of the US foreign policy towards Africa before the 1960s was to keep the continent steady and to make sure that the European colonial power, such as France and Great Britain, could maintain their influence in the colonies and the countries which had been free from their dominion. The purpose of this kind of policy was to prevent the Soviet Union from penetrating Africa and at least to remain neutral between the two Blocs in the Cold War.
引文
[1]世界知识出版社编:《亚非会议文件选辑》,北京:世界知识出版社1955年版,第53页。
[1]王绳祖主编:《国际关系史(第八卷)》,北京:世界知识出版社1995年版,第7页。
[1]John Talbott,The War without a Name:France and Algeria,1954-1962.New York:Knopf,1980.
[2]列宁:《论面目全非的马克思主义和“帝国主义经济主义”》(1916年8-9月)。《列宁全集》第28卷。北京:人民出版社1990年第2版,第154页。
[3]列宁:《论尤尼乌斯的小册子》(1916年7月)。《列宁全集》第28卷。北京:人民出版社1990年第2版,第6页。
[4]"Recent Deaths".The American Historical Review,Vol.83,No.3.(Jun.1978),p.861.
[1]Richard Brace & Joan Brace,Ordeal in Algeria.Princeton:D.Van Nostrand Co.,1960,pp.39-115
[2]雅克·苏斯戴尔(Jacques Soustelle)时任法国驻阿尔及利亚总督。
[3]Edward Behr,The Algerian Problem London:Hodder & Stoughton,1961,pp.64-75.
[4]Michael Clark,Algeria in Turmoil:A History of the Rebellion.New York:Frederick A.Praeger.1959,pp.27-43.
[5]Edgar O'Ballance,The Algerian Insurrection,1954-1962.London.Faber & Faber,1967,p.202.
[1]Herb Greer,A Scattering of Dust.London:Hutchinson,1962,p.96.
[2]William B.Quandt,Revolution and Political Leadership:Algeria 1954-1968.Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1969,pp.24-45.
[1]William H.Lewis,"The Decline of Algeria's FLN",Middle East Journal,vol.ⅹⅹ,No.2,1966,pp.161-72.
[2]John P.Entelis,Algeria:The Revolution Institutionalized.London:Boulder CO,1986,p.2.
[3]Ian Clegg,Workers'Self-Management in Algeria.London:Monthly Review Press,1971,pp.157-74
[4]David C.Gordon,The Passing of French Algeria.London:Oxford University Press,1966,p.50.
[5]O'balance,The Algerian Insurrection,p.210.
[1]Elie Kedourie,"The Retreat from Algiers",Times Literary Supplement,21 Apr.1978.
[1]Alistair Horne,A Savage War of Peace:Algeria 1954-1962.New York,The Viking Pros,1977,pp.175-177.
[2]Anthony Clayton,The Wars of French Decolonization.London:Longman,1994,pp.2-11.
[3]Tony Smith,The French Stake in Algeria,1945-1962.Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1978,p.127,172.
[4]张锡昌、周剑卿:《战后法国外交史1944-1992》,北京·世界知识出版社1993年版,第84页。
[1]Joan Gillespie,Algeria:Rebellion and Revolution.London:Frederick A.Praeger,1960,pp.175-180.
[2]Smith.The French Stake in Algeria,p.49.
[3]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.345.
[1]Dorothy Pickles,Algeria and France:From Colonialism to Co-operation.London:Methuen.1963,pp.153-55.
[2]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,1977,p.281,342-43,377-81.
[3]指毛泽东和胡志明。
[4]Elie Kedourie,"The Retreat from Algiers",p.449.
[1]Lorna Hahn,North Africa:Nationalism to Nationhood.Washington DC:Public Affairs Press,1960,p.252.
[2]Martin Thomas,The French North African Crisis:Colonial Breakdown and Anglo-French Relations,1945-1962.New York:Palgrave,2001,pp.1-13.
[3]Irwin M.Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War.Berkeley:University of California Press,2001,pp.2-8,
[1]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,pp.188-89,230-35,256-67.
[2]Matthew Connelly,A Diplomatic Revolution:Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era.New York:Oxford University Press,2002,pp.74-75,276-87.
[3]如Martin S.Alexander & J.F,Keiger,ed.,France and the Algerian War 1951-62:Strategy,Operations,and Diplomacy.Portland:Frank Cass,2002.这本论文集中有5篇关于阿尔及利亚战争的外交史方面的论文。
[1]B.A.Mojuetan,"Myth and Legend as Functional Instruments in Politics:The Establishment of the 'Alawi Dynasty in Morocco".The Journal of African History,vol.16,No.1(1975),pp.17-27.
[1](法)加布里埃尔·埃斯凯:《阿尔及利亚史》,第41页。
[2](阿尔及利亚)卡迪尔·阿里:《阿尔及利亚地理:自然、人文、经济》,北京:商务印书馆1978年,第69页。
[3]Kjell H.Halvorsen,"Colonial Transformation of Agrarian Society in Algeria".Journal of Peace Research,Vol.15,No.4(1978),pp.323-343;
Robert Montagne,"Evolution in Algeria".International Affairs,Vol.23,No.1(Jan.,1947),pp.42-44.
[1]吴秉真、高晋元主编:《非洲民族独立简史》,北京:世界知识出版社1993年,第6-7页。
[2]突尼斯近代的改革运动,详见艾周昌、郑家馨主编:《非洲通史·近代卷》,第394-400页。
[3](法)让·加尼阿热:《法国对突尼斯保护权的起源:1861-1881年》,上海:上海人民出版社1975年,第263-269页。
[4]艾周昌、郑家馨主编:《非洲通史·近代卷》,第397页。
[5]英国支持法国占领突尼斯,目的是以此换取法国对英国吞并塞浦路斯的承认;德国支持法国占领突尼斯,目的是安抚法国在1871年普法战争中败于德国的不满情绪,同时意在挑拨法意不合,以拉拢意大利与德奥结盟。1878年柏林会议时,法国和德、英之间在突尼斯问题上达成了默契。详见王绳祖主编:《国际关系史》第三卷,北京:世界知识出版社1995年12月,第96-98页。
[1]两次摩洛哥危机,详见王绳祖主编:《国际关系史》第三卷,第341-344页;第371-378页。
[2]楼均信主编:《法兰西第三共和国兴衰史》,北京:人民出版社1996年,第181页。
[3](苏)达什克维奇:《突尼斯人民民族解放斗争简史》,第111-117页。
[1](苏)达什克维奇:《突尼斯人民民族解放斗争简史》,第126-133页。
[2]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,p.39.
[3]Ibid.,p.38
[1](英)巴兹尔·戴维逊:《现代非洲史》,北京:中国社会科学出版社1989年版,第220页。
[2](苏)达什克维奇:《突尼斯人民民族解放斗争简史》,第134-153页。
[1]Clayton,The Wars of French Decolonization.p.14.
[2]郑家馨主编:《殖民主义史——非洲卷》,北京:北京大学出版社2000年,第630页。
[3]Cohen,Rulers of Empire,p.167.
[1]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,pp.43.
[2](英)罗兰·奥立弗、安东尼·阿特莫尔:《1800年以后的非洲》,北京:商务印书馆1992年版,第187-191页。
[1]Paul J.Zingg,"America and North Africa:A Case Study in United States-Third World Relations".The History Teacher,No.2,1979,pp.255-256.
[2]Charles F.Gallagher,The United States and North Africa:Morocco,Algeria,and Tunisia.Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press,1963,p.233.
[1]Gallagher,The United States and North Africa,pp.233-234.
[2]美国在马德里会议上的活动,见Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1880,pp.897-914.
[1]阿尔赫西拉斯会议是1906年1月6日至4月7日在西班牙阿尔赫西拉斯市召开的、旨在解决第一次摩洛哥危机的国际会议。摩、法、德、英、西、美等13国代表与会。会议最终确定了法国和西班牙在摩洛哥的特权地位,并达成了长达123条的“阿尔赫西拉斯会议总议定书”。美国在阿尔赫西拉斯会议上的活动以及会议进程,见Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1906,part 2.New York:Kraus Reprint Co.1969,pp.1470-1495;
阿尔赫西拉斯会议总议定书和附加议定书等文件的文本,见前引书,pp.1495-1513.
[2]详见Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1912.New York:Krans Reprint Co.1969,pp.987-922.
[3]Cordell Hull,The Memoirs of Cordell Hull,vol.1.New York:Macmillan Co.,1948,p.804.
[4]Robert Murphy,Diplomat among Warriors.New York:Doubleday & Company,Inc,1964,p.73.
[1]The Ambassador in France(Caffery) to the Under Secretary of State(Lovett),January 30,1948,Foreign Relations of th United States(FRUS),1948,vol.Ⅲ,pp.616-622. Rogers.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1987,p.108.
[1]郭华榕:《法国政治制度史》,第518页。
[2]详见本章后文。
[3]Michael M Harrison,The Reluctant Ally:France and Atlantic Security.Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press,1981,p.17.
[4]The Secretary of State to the Embassy in France,April 21,1950,FRUS,1950,vol.Ⅲ,pp.59-60.
[5]The United States Delegation at the Tripartite Foreign Ministers Meeting to the Acting Secretary of State,May 11,1950,FRUS,1950,vol.Ⅲ,pp.1033-1040.
[6]The Secretary of State to the Embassy in France,July 21,1950,FRUS,1950,vol.Ⅲ,p.135;The Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran,August 17,1950,FRUS,1950,vol.Ⅲ,p.223.
[1]Paper prepared in the Department of State,April 19,1950,FRUS,1950,vol.Ⅲ,p.871.
[2]Connelly,A Diplomatic Revolution,pp.51-52.
[1]孙建党:《美国在东南亚非殖民化过程中的政策研究:1940-1960》,第一章“美国外交传统中的非殖民化思想”(博士论文,未发表),南开大学2004年,第43页。
[2]Yahia H.Zoubir,"The United States,the Soviet Union and Decolonization of the Maghreb,1945-62,Middle Eastern Studies,No.1,1995,pp.59-60.
[3]C.Grove Haines,ed.,Africa Today.Baltimore:Rhe Johns Hopkins Press,1955,p.57.
[1]关于这一系列事件的来龙去脉,详见Bin Cheng,Rights of United States Nationals in the French Zone of Morocco",The International and Comparative Law Quarterly,No.3,1953,pp.354-367;Benjamin Rivlin,"The United States and Moroccan International Status 1943-1956:A Contributory Factor in Morocco's Reassertion of Independence from France",International Journal of African Historical Studies,No.1,1982,pp.64-82.
[2]Rivlin,"The United States and Moroccan International Status 1943-1956",International Journal of African Historical Studies,No.1,1982,p.73.
[3](美)罗伯特·H.费雷尔:《艾森豪威尔日记》,北京:新华出版社1987年4月,第325页。
[1](美)费雷尔:《艾森豪威尔日记》,第297页。
[2]Kathryn Statler,C.& Andrew L.Johns,The Eisenhower Administration,the Third World,and the Globalization of the Cold War.Lanham,Md.:Rowman & Littlefield,2006,pp.176-179.
[3](美)费雷尔:《艾森豪威尔日记》,第324-325页。
[4]世界知识出版社编:《杜勒斯言论选辑》,北京:世界知识出版社1960年,第7-8页。
[5]Egya Sangmuah,"Eisenhower and Containment in North Africa,1956-1960".Middle East Journal,44,1990,p.78;
Ronald W.Pruessen,"John Foster Dulles and the Predicaments of Power",in Richard Immerman,ed.,John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War.Prineeton:Prineeton University Press,1990,p.23;
Memorandum of discussion at the 269th Meeting of the National Security Council,Camp David,Maryland,December 8,1955,FRUS,1955-57,vol.Ⅹ,p.54.
[1]Draft Policy Statement Prepared by the National Security Council Staff for the National Security Council Planning Board,August 18,1953,FRUS,1952-1954,vol,Ⅺ,part 1,p.151.
[2]Development of psychological operations to achieve U.S.policy and goals in French North Africa(Algeria,Tunisia,and Morocco).WHITE HOUSE.SECRET.Issue Date:Mar 30,1953,DDRS,Document Number:CK3100217909,pp.4-5.
[3]Draft Policy Statement,August 18,1953,FRUS,1952-1954,vol.Ⅺ,part 1,p.152;Kolko,Gabriel.Confronting the Third World:United Staes Foreign Policy,1945-1980.New York:Pantheon Books,1988,pp.89-90.
[1](法)雅克·德罗兹:《民主社会主义(1864-1960)》上海:上海译文出版社1985年,第349页。
[2]Connelly,A Diplomatic Revolution,pp.64-65.
[1]Talbott,The War without a Name,p.38.
[2]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.123.
[3]Ibid.,pp.115-116.
[4]Alexander Werth,Lost Statesman,the Strange Story of Pierre Mendes-France.New York:Abelard-Schuman,1958,p.171,quoted from Brace & Brace.Ordeal in Algeria,p.116.
[5]O'balance,The Algerian Insurrection,p.59.
[6]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.116.
[1](法)雅克·夏普萨尔、阿兰·朗斯洛:《1940年以来法国的政治生活》,上海:上海译文出版社1981年版,第262-264页。
[2]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.126.
[1]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,pp.130-131.
[2]Talbott,The War without a Name,p.61.
[3]Christopher Harrison,"French Attitude to Empire and the Algerian War".African Affairs,(1983),pp.78-92.
[4]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.26.
[5]Talbott,The War without a Name,p.58.
[6]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.26.
[1]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.117.
[2]Talbott,The War without a Name,p.40.
[3]Horne,,4 Savage War of Peace,pp.175-77.
[4]Clayton,The Wars of French Decolonization,pp.2-11.
[1]Memorandum of discussion at the 225~(th) meeting of the National Security Council,November 24,FRUS,1952-1954,vol.Ⅱ,part 1,p.792.
[2]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.18.
[3]Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in France,March 17,1956,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅩⅦ,p.46.
[1]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.17.
[2]Telegraph from the Embassy in France to the Department of State,March 24,1955,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅩⅦ,pp.6-7.
[3]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.18.
[1]Operations Coordinating Board Report,June 1,1955,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,pp.88-94.
[1]Telegram from the Delegation at the North Atlantic Council Ministerial Meeting to the Department of State,May 9,1955,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅩⅦ,pp.12-13.
[2]Thomas,The French North African Crisis,p.79.
[1]Telegram from the Embassy in France to the Department of State,October 4,1955,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,pp.222-224.
[2]Note 3,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,p.225.
[1]Letter from the Representative at the United Nations(Lodge) to the Ambassador in France(Dillon),October 6,1955,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,pp.227-228.
[2]Note 2,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,p.232.
[3]U.S.Policy on French North Africa,DDRS,Document Number:.CK3100458630,p.3.
[1]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,pp.21-28.
[2]Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in France,February 7,1956.FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,p.233.
[1]Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in France,March 17,1956.FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅦ,pp.46-47.
[1]Thomas,The French North African Crisis,p.79.
[2]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.22-23.
[3]Ibid.,p.22.
[4]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,p.136.
[5]Operations Coordination Board intelligence notes.WHITE HOUSE.SECRET.Issue Date:Mar 26,1956,in DDRS,Document Number:CK3100328983,p.1
[1]Memorandum of discussion at the 298th meeting of the National Security Council,September 27,1956,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,p.135.
[1]Memorandum of discussion at the 298th meeting of the National Security Council,September 27,1956,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅧ,pp.135-136.
[1]陆庭恩、彭坤元:《非洲通史(现代卷)》,上海:华东师范大学出版社1995年版,第314-315页。
[2]吴秉真、高晋元主编:《非洲民族独立简史》,第162页。
[1](法)戴高乐:《希望回忆录(第一卷):复兴1958-1962》,上海:上海人民出版社1973年版,第16页。
[2]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,pp.282-283.
[1]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,p.276;
(美)布莱恩·克罗泽:《戴高乐传》,北京:商务印书馆1978年版,第548-549页,金重远:《20世纪的法兰西》,第287-289页。
[2](美)克罗泽:《戴高乐传》,第554-555页
[3]Behr,The Algerian Problem,p.149.
[1]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,p.289;(美)克罗泽:《戴高乐传》,第560-561页。
[2]http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/cn/03_discours/1958_05_15.htm
[3]金重远:《20世纪的法兰西》,第290页。
[1]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.140.
[2]金重远:《20世纪的法兰西》,第292页;
金重远:《战后西欧社会党》,上海:上海人民出版社1997年版,第58页。
[3]见Horne,A Savage War of Peace,p.296-297;
Michael Kettle,De Gaulle and Algeria,1940-1960:From Mers El-Kebir to the Algiers Barricades.London:Quartet Books,1993,pp.218-219;
Talbott,The War without a Name,p.129.等。
[1]http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/cn/03_discours/1958_05_27.htm
[2]金重远:《20世纪的法兰西》,第293-294页。
[1]Rioux,The Fourth Republic,p.293.
[2]Despatch from the Embassy in France to the Department of State,June 21,1957,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅩⅦ,p.130.
[3]National Intelligence Estimate,August 13,1957,FRUS,1955-1957,vol.ⅩⅩⅦ,p.165.
[1]Editorial Note,FRUS,1958-1960,vol.Ⅶ,p.22.
[2](美)艾森豪威尔:《缔造和平》,第465页、第485页。
[3](法)雅克·夏普萨尔、阿兰·朗斯洛:《1940年以来法国的政治生活》,第678页。
[1]详见5.1.2。
[2]Brace & Brace,Ordeal in Algeria,pp.266-267.
[3](法)戴高乐:《希望回忆录(第一卷)》,第61页。
[4]吴国庆:《战后法国政治史》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2004年版,第159页。
[1]吴国庆:《战后法国政治史》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2004年版,第159页。
[2](美)克罗泽:《戴高乐传》,第585-586页。
[3](法)戴高乐:《希望回忆录(第一卷)》,第61页。
[1]陆庭恩、彭坤元主编:《非洲通史(现代卷)》,第319-320页。
[2]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,pp.330-340;
Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.162;
Clayton,The Wars of French Decolonization,pp.158-161.
[3]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.294.
[4](法)戴高乐:《希望回忆录(第一卷)》,第72页。
[1]克罗泽:《戴高乐传》,第579-580页。
[2]Horne,A Savage War of Peace,pp.339-340;
Clayton,The Wars of French Decolonization,pp.161-162.
[1]Marc Trachtenberg,A Constructed Peace:the Making of the European Settlement,1945-1963.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1999,pp.225-227.
[2]Memorandum of conversation,September 27,1958,FRUS,1958-1960,vol.Ⅶ,part 1,p.359.
[3]Memorandum of conversation,October 17,1958,FRUS,1958-1960,vol.Ⅶ,part 2,p.104.
[1]Bureau of Intelligence and Research,Report No.8374.Report.DEPARTMENT OF STATE.SECRET.Issue Date:Dec 6,1960,DDRS,Document Numbs.CK3100407553,p.1.
[2](美)西奥多·索伦森:《肯尼迪》,上海:上海人民出版社1981年版,第343-344页。
[3]Constantine A Pagedas,Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the French Problem,1960-1963:A Troubled
[1]Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy inTunisia,March 31,1961,FRUS,1961-1963,vol.ⅩⅪ,pp.57-58.
[2]Wall,France,the United States,and the Algerian War,p.238.
[1]陈晓红:《戴高乐与非洲的非殖民化研究》,第196-197页。
[1]http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/cn/03_discours/1961_04_23.htm
[2]详见(法)雅克·德拉儒:《秘密军谋杀戴高乐》,北京:群众出版社1984年版。
[3]C.L.Suizberger,The Last of the Giants.New York:Macmillan,1970,p.747.
[4]F.Costigliola,France and the United States:the Cold Alliance since World War Ⅱ.New York:Twayne,1992.p.132.
[5]James M.Gavin,"On Dealing with De Gaulle",Atlantic Monthly,June 1965,pp.49-54.
[1]艾森豪威尔政府和肯尼迪政府对此的认识是一致的。见Richaed J.Barnet,Allies:America,Europe and Japan since the War.New York:Simon and Schuster,1983,pp.189-191;Blaufarb,The Countersurgency Era,p.53.
[2]梁根成:《美国与非洲——第二次世界大战结束至80年代后期美国对非洲的政策》,北京:北京大学出版社1991年版,第7-12页。
[3]梁根成:《美国与非洲》,第36页。
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[4]潘一宁:《美国对第一次印度支那战争的反应》,《中山大学学报(社会科学版)》1999年第4期。
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[6]姚百慧:《艾森豪威尔对法政策研究——关于“三国理事会事件”的历史考察》,载《历史教学》(高校版)2007年第10期
[7]张庆海:《阿尔及利亚战争前后的法国种族主义——以阿尔及利亚移民在法国社会地位的变化为例》,载《世界民族》2003年第1期。
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[9]朱晓罕:《法国反战知识分子与阿尔及利亚战争》,载《历史教学·高校版》2008年第3期。