摘要
新历史主义代表人物斯蒂芬·格林布拉特主张将历史考察带入文学研究,强调文学与文化之间的联系,认为文学是文化的产物,文学隶属于大的文化网络,文学研究应该纳入历史文化语境进行考察。新历史主义也是一种重新解读历史与文学之间关系的历史诗学。它以“文本的历史性”和“历史的文本性”作为其批评实践的主要立足点。“历史的文本性”指人们只有通过源自选择性保护和涂抹的文本才能接近一个物质性的历史存在。而当文本转化为档案时,它们自身也充当后人的阐释媒介。历史在文本中留下自己的镜像,而历史事实只有通过经过权力挑选和抹除而保存下来的文本才能得到表述。“文本的历史性”指的是所有的书写和阅读形式,包括文学文本,非文学文本乃至社会大文本的历史具体性与物质性。文本并非是一个超历史的审美客体,而是特定时代的历史、阶级、权力以及文化语境的产物。文本解读只有在纳入到具体的历史语境之中时才能显现其真正意义。文本是彰显历史意义的存在体,甚至就是构成历史不可缺少的一部分。文本本身就是一种历史文化事件。文本与历史一样都具有诗性的深层结构,都充满想象性与虚构性(汪民安403)。新历史主义独特的文化策略和广阔的理论视野为解读菲利普·罗思后期小说的深刻主题、内容、复杂的艺术创作手法提供了恰当的批评手段。
菲利普·罗思(1933—)是当代美国多产作家,其丰富的想象力和多重主题一直受到评论界的关注。1959年罗思出版他的成名作品《再见吧,哥伦布》。这部小说在帮助他获得美国国家图书奖的同时,也让他遭到来自美国犹太社区的批评。自此,罗思成为当代美国最有影响力同时也是颇有争议的小说家。现在罗思已经出版小说二十九部,两部回忆录,数篇短篇小说和两本文学批评集。他的小说获得了美国普利策奖、美国国家图书奖、笔会/福克纳小说奖、美国批评家协会小说奖等几乎所有美国小说类重要文学奖项。
他在1986年以后发表的作品备受青睐。究其原因主要是他的创作主题发生了转向,融入了包括20世纪40年代之后的美国历史、当代美国人对美国梦的追寻和梦的破灭、种族身份、以色列问题、性别问题和第二次世界大战屠杀犹太人历史等颇有思考性的历史文化内涵,大大开拓了文学叙事的疆界,并借用后现代派小说家独具特色的叙述手法表达人的自我反思和心灵叩问,旨在探询人类心灵共性问题。这使许多评论家意识到罗思的小说不仅仅是一些简单的取悦性故事,而是融犹太人身份认同与美国历史文化于一体,正是两者的紧密结合赋予罗思的创作以独特的深层意蕴。历史解读和后现代文学话语涵盖了罗思所有后期小说,例如,《生活逆流》(1986),《欺骗:一部小说》(1990),《遗产》(1991),《夏洛克在行动:一个自白》(1993),《萨巴斯剧院》(1995),《美国牧歌》(1997),《我嫁给了一个共产党》(1998),《人性的污点》(2000),《垂死的动物》(2001),《反美阴谋:一部小说》(2004),《每个人》(2006),和《鬼隐去》(2007)。这些小说都是以广阔的美国历史和犹太历史为其故事发生的背景,小说展现了深邃的主题和作者对于历史和文化对于人性的潜在影响的深刻并独到见解。
罗思进行小说创作已经有五十年之久。在漫长而且成功的文学生涯中,他所创作小说主题丰富多彩。然而,这其中也不乏连续性。例如,美国二十世纪四十年代至今的美国历史再现以及美国普通人所受到的历史的影响,一直是他小说中反复关注的问题。本文以罗思近20年创作的、被评论界普遍认为最出色的六部小说为研究对象,着重探讨罗思后期小说中的历史解读和自我再现,尤其强调第二次世界大战后美国犹太人所面临的生存困境,历史事件在一些小人物的命运和生活中所反映出的当代社会各种矛盾冲突,以及作者所运用的后现代文学话语。本论文试图全面考察这些作品的主题和创作特点,力图勾勒出罗思的真实面目及其艺术创作手法背后所潜隐的创作理念、文化信息和人文价值观。整个讨论紧紧围绕罗思作品对历史的再现和自我追寻的主题,从侧面审视当代美国历史文化发展的脉络,进而窥视美国社会性质,以及一个时代的种族、性别、文化等发展脉络。
身份建构是罗思笔下主要人物必须面对的困惑,他们大都没有一个和谐的自我,内蕴自我分裂或自相矛盾。一个人的自我生成是个复杂过程,会同时拥有多种自我,并在社会中产生差异。罗思小说中的角色大都表现这类差异,即复杂的性格和人格多面性,具体体现在他们的身份建构上。即使同一个人物也出现多种身份。当代美国所呈现的复杂而令人迷惑的世态使美国犹太人失去了心智和情感满足的源泉,他们的自我追寻充满了失落。他们尝试放弃自己原有的种族身份,希望通过各种手段和方式去与所在国家的主流社会融合,结果却迷失了自我。罗思试图再现美国当代多元文化社会中这些挣扎在文化背景所要求的完美自我和个体本身永远无法满足的自我之间的彷徨。他以独特的方式解释和描述着这些不知不觉成为历史的玩物的当代人,刻画出他们在这个复杂社会中说表现出来的多重的自我。小说中的人物同时忍受着欲望和死亡的折磨。面对着这样的生存困境,一些人堕入悲伤,躲避现实,逃离所工作和的城市,躲藏在自己为自己设计的虚伪的身份中。《生活逆流》中的亨利即属于这样的人物。另外,一些人努力地追寻着美国梦,不惜放弃自己的真实民族身份,戴上可以防止被主流社会伤害和被他人窥见其内心秘密的面具,从此生活在虚假之中。《美国牧歌》中的西摩·莱弗和《人性污点》中的柯曼·斯尔科就是属于这样的悲剧人物。《萨巴斯剧院》中的萨巴斯和《垂死动物》中的凯帕斯沉醉在对性欲无限的追求中,以此逃避不堪的现实和对历史所带给他们的悲剧以及死亡的无所不在的威胁。
在刻画小说中人物身份困境的同时,罗思也是美国社会和政治画面的敏锐观察者。他的巨大成就在于他能够深入美国本土意识的核心处,揭示出美国社会中所包含的各种矛盾,例如,社会与个体,男人与女人,人们对于稳定生活的需要和想要不断冒险的欲望冲动,美国梦的神话和美国历史与现实之间的矛盾。他善于通过个体的刻画达到对整个社会团体生存状况的白描,详细列举出二十世纪美国人心理和社会生活的独有特点,并将这些特点与人类共有的生活状况相联系。他生动描述了一个内在冲动和外界历史、社会的限制力量不断斗争的人类永恒的生存困境。他同时刻画了当代美国人美国梦的追求和梦最终的破灭。
罗思在小说中进行历史与文化再现的同时,他所运用的文学话语经历了不断的变化和完善。他的成名小说《再见吧,哥伦布》中所运用的是典型的现实主义手法,从《解缚的朱克曼》开始,现代主义写作特点在他的二十世纪七十年代至八十年代中期的小说中无所不在。自1986年罗思发表《生活逆流》,罗思成为一位后现代小说家。罗思创作风格的转变在一定程度上反映了第二次世界大战之后美国文学和批评界流派的转向。的确,后现代主义成为罗思自1986年所出版的十六部小说最主要的特点。例如,在《生活逆流》和《夏洛克在行动》中罗思运用多重叙述声音来讨论当时国际社会和美国社会热点讨论的以色列国家存在的合理性问题和美国犹太人的犹太性应该如何继承和发展的问题。小说中多重叙述声音让完全相反的观点同时并存在小说的一个章节和同一本小说之中,各种声音彼此争论,而作者对所有声音不置可否。又例如,在《萨巴斯剧院》中,罗思采取了狂欢式叙述手法。罗思同时在小说中将传记、小说和历史结合在一起,忽略了各种文体的明显界限。具有后现代特点的欲望与死亡描写也成为罗思最近几部小说的显著特色。
因此,本论文采用辩证的批评方法,运用新历史主义和文化批评的相关视角,把历史分析、文化研究和具体的文本分析相结合,全面探讨罗思小说的主题意蕴和文学话语。为了更好地透视罗思小说的历史文化内涵,本文还采用海登·怀特、格林·布拉特等人的新历史主义观点,将罗思后期小说置于历史和文化背景中进行考察,重新审视罗思后期小说所关注的历史文化事实,认为罗思在刻画人物自我追寻的历程中,将美国其他少数民族的历史,如黑人的第二次世界大战前后的历史、美国女权主义发展史、美国性史、美国工业发展史、甚至美国个别城市的发展史等都囊括在其小说之中,显示了他宽阔的创作视野和深厚的历史文化意识。本论文细致分析了罗思后期小说创作的后现代派写作特色和内容。论文除绪论和结束语外,共分为三章。
绪论部分介绍了罗思生平并简要阐述了他在美国当代文学中的地位。同时梳理了中美文学评论家对于罗思后期小说的评价,并从中得出结论,即到目前为止,国内外还没有学者将罗思这六部极具代表性的,以明显的历史事件为叙述背景的获奖小说集中在一起研究。本论文以新历史主义和文化唯物主义视角为切入点,深入的研究了罗思后期小说的历史再现和文学话语。绪论同时解释了论文所运用的理论框架,即新历史主义和文化唯物主义的主要特点和内容,并简要介绍了论文的基本结构和内容。
第一章是关于罗思小说中历史解读和自我身份的重构。本部分主要考察罗思1986年之后出版的具有里程碑意义的两部小说,《生活逆流》和《夏洛克在行动》,通过对这两部小说的元小说叙述特点的分析,详细论述美国犹太人所经历的分裂自我与多重自我及其表现特征。
第二章着重分析罗思小说中对于社会矛盾的历史解读。《美国牧歌》和《人性的污点》这两部小说所折射的自我形态及其对当代美国犹太人的影响,认为罗思逐渐放弃了《生活逆流》和《夏洛克在行动》两部小说中只关注犹太历史政治问题的创作心理,把目光投向那些一心追逐“美国梦”,渴望在美国社会得到融合,甚至不惜放弃自己种族身份的悲剧性人物,大大拓展了文本内涵。论文首先阐述了第二次世界大战纳粹党屠杀犹太人历史留给犹太人的创伤、以色列国家的建立及其意义、犹太复国主义、犹太人国外散居思想等历史问题在罗思小说之中的再现,试图展现这些复杂政治历史问题如何对小说人物命运产生不可逆转的影响。论文进一步提出,随着罗思离开欧洲再次返回美国居住,社会、文化、政治背景的改变,包括读者对小说的内容期待的改变,这一切让罗思逐渐放弃只对犹太历史政治问题的关注,开始在小说中刻画那些一心追逐美国梦的实现,渴望在美国社会得到融合,甚至不惜放弃自己种族身份的悲剧性人物。这些人最后被历史事实所欺骗,不知不觉地沦落为历史的牺牲品。
第三章主要对罗思后期小说中明显后现代写作特点进行了分析。将罗思作品的历史解读和叙事话语结合在一起论述,论证了罗思后期小说不仅在思想深度上比前期小说有极大的提高和增强,由于他对各种文学创作手法的娴熟的掌握和理解,他对美国后现代派小说艺术的完善和进一步创新做出巨大贡献。例如,在罗思后期小说中,他熟练的运用了元小说技巧,多重叙述声音,狂欢,杂糅等具有明显后现代派写作特征的文学话语。
结束语总结了本论文全文的观点,总结了罗思创作后期小说时强烈的历史意识,认为以历史对美国普通人生活和命运无形却沉重的影响为线索,运用新历史主义和文化唯物主义地批评手段,来分析罗思小说中人物自我身份建构、社会矛盾冲突的刻画、及罗思作品的后现代派创作手法,会达到对罗思后期六部重要小说的深刻理解。结语同时简要概括了罗思后期小说的利弊和不足之处,
总之,罗思是一位具有时代意义的作家,思想敏锐,与时俱进,关注当下社会。他的作品可以引发读者对美国梦和当代美国社会的复杂性、虚伪性和分裂本质进行深刻的思考。菲利普·罗思十分关注犹太人历史发展和前途,第二次世界大战后美国社会的历史和美国社会文化的进步和衰退。同时,他的创作深深植根于第二次世界大战后的美国社会,关注社会的各个层面,各个阶层人物的快乐、痛苦与无奈,他的小说展现了美国当代社会一个全景式的画面。罗思的小说不仅具有极高的历史价值,同时具有巨大的哲学认识价值。罗思一直在通过刻画人物的生平发展历程,来分析人性的力量和弱点。罗思的小说不仅为世界文坛密切关注的对象,他的作品也越来越多地引起我国学者的重视,在我国学术界的影响正在不断的扩大。
Stephen Greenblatt, one of the representatives of New Historicism, puts forward the idea that literary texts are cultural artifacts that can tell people something about the interplay of discourses, the web of social meanings, operating in the time and place in which the text was written. And they can do so because the literary text is, itself, part of the interplay of discourses, a thread in the dynamic web of social meaning. For new historicism, the literary text and the historical situation from which it emerged are equally important because text, which refers to the literary work, and context, which are the historical conditions that produced it, are mutually constitutive: they create each other. Like the dynamic interplay between individual identity and society, literary texts shape and are shaped by their historical contexts (Tyson 627). The New Historicism and Cultural Materialism, which has these as some of its strategic analyzing principles, provides a suitable critical method for the understanding of Philip Roth's later novels. The full disclose of Roth's insightful depiction of the specific Jewish American history and the American national historical contexts can help to clarify the contents, and themes of his novels.
Philip Roth (1933—) has been regarded as one of the most prominent contemporary Jewish American writers. From the moment that his debut book, Goodbye, Columbus (1959), won him the National Book Award and earned him attacks from the Jewish community, Philip Roth has been among the most influential and consistently controversial writers of our age. Now he is the author of twenty-nine novels, numerous stories, two memoirs and two books of literary criticism. He has won the Pulitzer Prize, the American National Book Award, the PEN/Faulkner Award, and the National Book Critics Circle Award for his fiction. Most of the awards are given to him for his novels published since 1986.
From this year on, Philip Roth's writing has undergone great changes. His fifteen novels published after The Counterlife have changed from the early realism and modernism to postmodernism. Historical representation and postmodernist literary discourse permeate these novels, such as The Counterlife (1986), Deception: A Novel (1990); Patrimony (1991); Operation Shylock: A Confession (1993); Sabbath's Theatre (1995); American Pastoral (1997); I Married a Communist (1998); The Human Stain (2000); The Dying Animal (2001); The Plot Against Animal: A Novel (2004); Everyman (2006) and Exit Ghost (2007). Profound themes and insightful perceptions situated in the broad historical context have marked his later novels that require a close examination.
The themes Roth has been concerned in the course of his literary career are varied. Nevertheless, Roth is unafraid to mine the same territory over and over again, to deepen his investigations rather than just broaden them. Therefore, there is a good deal of consistency about all of his works. His novels, stories and non-fiction writing all seem to be intricately conjoined. When examined closely, they all point to a relatively historical sense. His novels resonate with the American history from the 1940s to the present and the history's impact on the twentieth-century American life. Therefore, throughout the dissertation, the focus of discussion has been set on the historical representation of Self, social conflicts in the U. S., and the postmodernist literary discourse applied in his later fiction.
Most of the characters in Roth's novels suffer from conflicts of identity when their entire self-image, or even part of it, doesn't match up with the idealized version prompted by the cultural milieu to which they belong. His characters struggle to accommodate contending impulses and desires, to negotiate some kind of inner peace or balance of power, or perhaps just to maintain hostilities at a low destructive level, between the ethnical and social yearnings and the implacable, singular lusts for flesh and its pleasures. His characters always struggle between the measured self and the insatiable self. Henry, Nathan Zuckerman, and Mickey Sabbath all belong to this kind of characters.
Roth tires to define and quest for the hard-to-define multiple selves in contemporary multi-cultural America, whose fates are always defined by history and culture. At the same time these selves are unavoidably driven by desire and death instincts which are especially evident in his latest novels. He depicts different experiences of his characters. Some give in to dismay, becoming misanthropic shells, appearing round shouldered and burdened, as though in flight from a captured city. Henry in The Counterlife is a representative. Some reach out and grab whatever they can get their hands on, whatever momentarily salves their pain. Seymour Levov in American Pastoral and Coleman Silk in The Human Stain all have done such kind of things. Some latch onto an ideology and some embrace nihilism, like Philip Roth the character, Pipik, and other characters' choices in Operation Shylock. Some manage to negotiate a tense balance between their opposing desires and drives, finding a way to live in the unsure and devalued universe. Sabbath in Sabbath's Theatre and Kepesh in The Dying Animal are examples of such kind of experiences.
Roth investigates into the individual in extreme situations, in conflict with powerful and corrupt political systems and the unpredictable historical events. His work speaks of the subtle ways in which the character loses his Self, such as conformity, the ambitious American Dream, banality, blind patriotism and trivialization. He depicts the futile attempts that characters try to cut loose from what binds and inhibits them. Roth in fact questions and scrutinizes the authority which influences the very fates of his characters.
Philip Roth at the same time has been an incisive observer of the American social and political scenes. His greatest accomplishments lie in his ability to probe into the American consciousness and reveal the major conflicts between the society and the individual, between men and women, between the need for security and the desire for adventure, between the myth of American culture and reality. He moves from the specific to the universal, detailing the psychological and sociological peculiarities of life in twentieth century America and linking them ultimately to universal issues of human identity. He delineates the predicament of the individual engaged in a severe struggle against all the internal and external forces of control and points out the universalities of the human condition. He successfully depicts contemporary Americans' American Dream and the disillusionment of the Dream.
Philip Roth has published twenty-nine novels within about fifty years since 1959. His novels move from realism represented by Goodbye, Columbus, then to modernism, which Zuckerman Unbound is a typical example, and to postmodernism which is the typical characteristic of the novels published after The Counterlife. His new writing style in a way reflects the changes of literary discourses in American literary and critical world. Indeed, postmodernism marks the major characteristics of his sixteen novels published after 1986. In The Counterlife and Operation Shylock, Roth takes up a variety of perspectives on the issues of the state of Israel and the American Jewishness which have been under hot discussion in the world and which have engrossed him during that period. The discussions are in clear opposition to one another and at times along a continuum. Roth applies metafiction techniques and doubleness to present the multiple points of view. In Sabbath's Theatre, carnival performance is used. Roth also blurs the links between biography, fiction, and history. Postmodernist depictions of love and death are also one of the main characteristics in his latest novels.
This dissertation, "On the Historical Representation and Literary Discourse of Philip Roth's Later Novels", applies the theories of New Historicism and Cultural Materialism to portray Philip Roth's historical representations of Self's identity and of social conflicts. It also analyses the postmodern literary discourse in his latest novels. It situates Roth's novels in the broad historical context and argues about his portrayal of characters' conflicts between the society and the individual, between men and women, between the need for security and the desire for adventure, between the myth of American culture and the reality.
In Introduction, Roth's important position in the literary world is emphasized. Comments from different Roth scholars are presented in order to show the various aspects critics have been focusing on Roth's novels. Therefore, a fact has been disclosed. Few critics have chosen the six important prize-winning novels as a whole and discuss the outstanding historical representation and postmodernist literary discourse of Roth's works, though they have in one way or another realized its great importance. Besides, the term applied in the dissertation, New Historicism and Cultural Materialism, has been analyzed in detail. The structure and the contents of the dissertation are briefly analyzed in Introduction.
Chapter One deals with Roth's two novels published immediately after 1986. They are The Counterlife and Operation Shylock, both of which are Philip Roth's milestone works. Roth uses metafictional techniques to analyze the fragmented Self and the multiple selves of modern people, especially the fragmented souls that Jewish Americans feel in contemporary American history. Traditional realism is not enough for a contemporary writer to reflect the conflicts which modern man faces with. The complicated contemporary history cannot be presented by just narrating one person's opinion. Metafictional self-reflexiveness and multiple points of view are being applied to present the fragmented Self in the contemporary world.
Chapter Two is to focus on Roth's historical representation of social conflicts in his novels. It also discusses the restrictions of histories on the fates of human beings. The protagonists in The Counterlife and Operation Shylock are concerned with the Jewish sufferings and alienation. These Jewish Americans keep talking about the Holocaust, Diasporism and Zionism. Their lives, including their marriage, their work and even their identity are defined both by the Jewish American history and the history of the state of Israel. However, the protagonists in American Pastoral and The Human Stain try to resist and get rid of their ethnic roots. The results waiting for them are the unavoidable tragedy of the loss of their identities. In those two novels, American history after World War II, such as the Vietnam War and the rebellions in the 1960s and the 1970s, and the Political Correctness of the 1980s and 1990s, are the events which keep haunting and influencing the lives of the protagonists.
Chapter Three discusses the postmodern literary discourse of Roth later novels. The Counterlife published in 1986 is Roth's most ambitious and meticulously structured novel. It marks the beginning of the peak phase of Roth's literary career. While Roth engages in a sustained examination of the relationship between American and Israeli Jews, he starts to use a lot of evident postmodernist techniques. Postmodernist techniques in the sixteen novels published between 1986 and 2008 are impressive. Mctafiction, carnival performances, the hybrid of history, biography and fiction can be traced in those novels. By applying the postmodernist techniques, Roth investigates into the issues of ethnic identity, the state of Israel, the Holocaust, sexuality, American history, and the human essence.
In Conclusion, Roth's great literary accomplishments are highlighted. His ability to delve into the American consciousness and to reveal its major conflicts are generalized. It is believed that the Jewish and American history that Roth has handled artistically in his novels, his outstanding writing style and his insightful ideas about the essence of human existence have turned out to be a rich literary heritage for readers both in the United States and all over the world.
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