摘要
三语习得研究是在双语和二语习得研究的基础上，于1980s由迁移理论发展而兴起的一个新领域，为当今语言学研究的热点之一。跨语言影响是它的一个重要内容。国外这方面的研究发现，L2迁移是该领域的一个显著特点。无论是习得者的母语为非印欧语言，还是他们的三种语言均属印欧语系时，在L3习得中他们常常从L2迁移知识。L2在跨语言影响上的作用远比想像的重要。
我国的少数民族学生在学习汉语之后再学外语，也是一种三语习得现象，其三语组合模式普遍为母语(L1)-汉语(L2)-外语(l3)。因此，本研究直接以L2(汉语)为对象，对哈萨克语/维吾尔语-汉语-英语这三种不同语系的语言组合进行跨语言迁移研究，了解L2(汉语)对L3(英语)习得会有什么样的影响，是否也能得出与国外研究相同的结论，抑或是有可能发现一些过去研究中未曾发现的现象及其特征。
本研究以新疆伊宁市高级中学的哈萨克族与维吾尔族学生为对象，采用应用语言学通用的定量与定性相结合的方法，以中介语迁移假设、门槛假设与相互依存发展假设、多语动态模式为理论框架，从隐性与显性两个方面进行L2(汉语)迁移的实证研究。研究的重点问题有：(1) L2(汉语)是否为新疆少数民族学生习得L3(英语)的初始状态？(2) L2(汉语)对新疆少数民族学生习得L3(英语)有什么样的影响？(3) L3(英语)习得过程中是否有门槛，能让L2(汉语)水平产生积极影响？(4)导致L2(汉语)迁移的因素是什么？
在隐性层面，本研究中的第一个定量分析采用SPSS (version11.0)统计软件，对相关数据进行了统计分析：(1)方差分析显示，模式Ⅲ少数民族学生的L3(英语)成绩高于模式Ⅰ与模式Ⅱ的少数民族学生；(2) T检验显示，模式Ⅲ没有L1读写能力的哈萨克族与维吾尔族学生的L3(英语)成绩高于模式Ⅰ与模式Ⅱ既有L1又有L2读写能力的同族学生；(3)相关分析显示，只有维吾尔语(L1)、汉语(L2)与英语(L3)有相关关系；(4)回归分析显示，在哈萨克语/维吾尔语(L1)-汉语(L2)-英语(L3)这三种语言组合中，对因变量L3(英语)成绩有显著影响并可做出预测的自变量是L2(汉语)。
这些统计分析结果表明：L2(汉语)为新疆少数民族学生习得L3(英语)的初始状态；L2(汉语)水平对其L3(英语)习得有显著影响: L2(汉语)水平高，则L3(英语)水平高；L2(汉语)水平低，则L3(英语)水平低。
在显性层面，本研究关于L2(汉语)对维吾尔族学生习得L3(英语)语法的影响结果表明:(1)在其习得L3(英语)语法过程中的迁移主要来自L2(汉语)。错误主要表现在形态与语义方面。影响L2(汉语)迁移的主要因素是语言类型、语言水平与语言使用的近期性。(2)这些学生对L3(英语)句法的掌握好于形态。可能的解释是L2(汉语)与L3(英语)在词序结构上的跨语言相似对L3(英语)句法习得产生了积极影响，而L2(汉语)与L3(英语)在形态上的跨语言差异对习得L3(英语)形态有些负面影响，但这种负面影响有可能会随着汉英水平的提高而逐渐减弱或克服。(3)在前三个L3(英语)水平组内，L3(英语)水平相等，L2(汉语)水平高者，所犯的形态错误少于L2(汉语)水平低者。这有可能是L2(汉语)水平较高的L3(英语)习得者对L3中新的语法特征更敏感。因为他们已经习得了一种非母语语言，具有较强的元语言能力、扩充的词汇知识与较高的认知技能。这些都有助于他们启动对普遍语法参数的调节。(4)在L3(英语)习得过程中似乎确有门槛。就本研究而言，第一个门槛是90-104分段，第二个门槛是120-135分段。低于第一个门槛，看不出双语使用的积极效果。达到了第二个门槛，使用双语的积极效益更易于显见。
在此基础上，本研究还对L2(汉语)的语义迁移与概念迁移进行了分析讨论。对于语义错误产生的原因，本研究所做的尝试性解释是：一方面可能与L2(汉语)与L3(英语)范畴形成的抽象度不同有关：L2(汉语)的一个范畴常对应于L3(英语)的几个范畴。另一方面也许与习得者对L2(汉语)与L3(英语)之间的心理连接方式有关。当习得者选定的目标语形式与源语言在语义上不一致时，就会产生负迁移。
在概念层次上，本研究所发现的迁移错误主要涉及到L2(汉语)与L3(英语)在三个概念域上的差异：数、时间、空间。究其原因主要有三个方面：一是语言本身的差异。L2(汉语)与L3(英语)的语言编码不同，因而对特定语域的语言突显有差别：L2(汉语)为量词类语言，L3(英语)为名词类语言；L2(汉语)缺乏形态，L3(英语)形态丰富。二是习得者自身的目标语知识有限、语言自动化程度低、语言意识较弱。三是英语教学中存在着不足。英语教师在教学中常常忽略了对意义的显性知识与隐性知识做必要的区分。
就L2(汉语)对L3(英语)习得的影响结果而言，第一个研究结果表明L2(汉语)水平对L3(英语)水平有显著性的积极影响。第二个研究却在L3(英语)书面表达中发现了L2(汉语)对习得L3(英语)形态与语义有负面影响。为什么L2(汉语)在隐性与显性两方面对L3(英语)习得的影响结果会有所不同呢？
本研究所做的尝试性解释是：L2(汉语)之所以会在隐性与显性两个层面上对L3(英语)习得产生不同的影响，首先与理解和产出这两种任务本身的提取机制不同有关。理解过程是从形式(音)到意义，是透过给定的形式解读语义。产出过程是从意义到形式(音)。言者是从模糊的交际意图开始，然后再运用各种句法、语音程序。这就意味着完成产出任务的难度更大。其次，习得者在理解与产出任务中对跨语言相似的运用也不同。在理解任务上，习得者经常靠觉察到的跨语言相似与已知的一种语言相关联；在产出任务上，他们凭借的是假定相似策略，即假定目标语中的词汇和语法会与先前习得的语言有语义或功能相似。当这种假定相似与实际情况不一致时，就会有犯错的危险。第三，还与习得者的语言水平有关。当习得者的多语水平处于上门槛时，他们得到发展的共享隐性水平有助于将其认知能力从一种语言迁移到另一种语言，而且迁移更容易发生在语言水平的“更深”层次，如阅读理解。因为阅读理解不需要分开教两/多次，而是一个隐性能力，可应用于多种语言。当习得者的多语水平处于下门槛时，认知影响自然是负面的。
本研究对二个实证研究结果从语言学与心理语言学、认知语言学、语言经验与知识积累、社会语言学四个方面进行了分析讨论。讨论结果表明：L2(汉语)迁移是多种因素相互作用的结果，最关键的因素是语言类型与语言水平；迁移是多语习得过程中必不可少的一部分，先前习得的语言一定会对后来的语言习得产生影响。
本研究的结论是：L2(汉语)为新疆少数民族学生习得L3(英语)的初始状态，较之其母语，L2(汉语)水平对其习得L3(英语)的影响更显著，并可用来预测其L3(英语)习得水平。在L3(英语)习得过程中确有门槛。只有上了第一个门槛之后，双语使用的积极效果才会显现。
本研究结果对我国少数民族地区三语教学的启示是：L2(汉语)学习有利于认知能力的发展，而发展的认知能力又有助于L3(英语)习得。因此要提高英语(L3)水平，需得学好汉语(L2)。
Research on third language acquisition is a newly-developed field that isbased on bilingualism and second language acquisition studies, and resultedfrom transfer theories in1980s. It has become one of the hot topics in today’slinguistic research. And one of its main focuses is cross-linguistic influence. Thefindings concerned abroad have shown that L2transfer is a significant feature inthird language acquisition: In either case that third language learners whosenative languages are non-Indo-European or their three languages are allIndo-European, they tend to transfer knowledge from their second language. Therole of L2in cross-linguistic influence has turned out to be of greater importancethan originally suggested.
It is trilingualism when minority students in our country learn a foreignlanguage after learning Chinese. Their three languages usually are in the modeof mother tongue (L1)-Chinese (L2)-foreign language (L3). Therefore, this study,by focusing on L2(Chinese), will explore the cross-linguistic interactionsamong these three languages Kazakh/Uyghur-Chinese-English to see whetherits result can confirm the studies done abroad, or it can have some new findings.
This study aims to find L2(Chinese) influence both on underlying andobservable language levels, based on the theoretical framework of interlanguagetransfer hypothesis, threshold hypothesis, developmental interdependencyhypothesis, and a dynamic model of multilingualism, by the quantitative and qualitative methods usually adapted in applied linguistics, with the participantsof Kazakh or Uyghur middle school students in Yining, Xinjiang. The keyresearch questions are:(1) Is L2(Chinese) the initial state of L3(English)acquisition of Xinjiang minority students?(2) What effects does L2(Chinese)have on L3(English) acquisition of Xinjiang minority students?(3) Is there athreshold of proficiency in the L3that learners need to acquire before their L2(Chinese) proficiency becomes relevant?(4) What are the factors that cause L2(Chinese) transfer?
In underlying language level, the quantitative analysis of this study finds bymeans of SPSS (version11.0):
(1) ANOVA analyses show that the L3(English) scores of those minoritystudents in Model Ⅲ, non-balanced bilinguals, have surpassed that of theminority students in Model Ⅰand Model Ⅱ,balanced bilinguals.
(2) T-test analyses reveal that the L3(English) scores of those who areliterate only in L2(Chinese) in Model Ⅲ is better than that of those who areliterate both in their L1and L2, and belong to the same ethnic group in ModelⅠand Model Ⅱ.
(3) Correlational analyses indicate that the scores only in L2(Chinese) andL3(English), L1(Uyghur) and L3(English) are interrelated.
(4) Multiple regression analyses give the results that between these threelanguages Kazakh/Uyghur(L1)–Chinese(L2)–English(L3), L2(Chinese) hasa more significant effect on L3(English) scores, and can be used as a predictorfor it.
These analyses suggest that L2(Chinese) is the initial state of L3(English)acquisition of Xinjiang minority students, and shows a significant effect on theirL3(English) acquisition: When L2(Chinese) proficiency is high, it facilitatesL3(English) learning. When it is low, it impedes it.
In observable language level, the study of L2(Chinese) influence on theacquisition of the L3(English) grammar by the Uyghur students finds:
(1) The source of cross-linguistic transfer in the acquisition of L3(English)grammar is L2(Chinese), which demonstrates mainly in morphological errorsand semantic errors. And typology, proficiency, and recency are the key factorsthat lead to L2(Chinese) transfer.
(2) The learners do better in L3(English) syntax than in morphology. Apossible explanation is that cross-linguistic similarity in word order between theL3(English) and the L2(Chinese) facilitates the acquisition of L3(English)syntax, while the cross-linguistic difference in morphology between the twolanguages has some hindrances to the learning of the L3(English) morphology.However, this negative influence on morphology may diminish or overcome asthe proficiencies both in the L2(Chinese) and the L3(English) increase.
(3) Within the first three groups of the L3(English) proficiency，thelearners of equal L3(English) proficiency but a higher L2(Chinese) proficiencydo outperform those learners with a lower L2(Chinese) proficiency on theacquisition of L3(English) morphology. A possibility is that language learnerswho have already acquired one or more non-native languages exhibit heightenedmetalinguistic expertise, better lexical knowledge and more developed cognitive skills, which aid them in triggering the setting of UG parameters.
(4) It seems that there is a threshold in the L3(English) acquisition. As faras this study is concerned, the first threshold is90-104scores, and the secondone is120-135scores. There will no positive effect of bilingualism if a learner’sproficiency is lower than the first threshold. And a positive effect of bilingualismcan be seen obviously when a learner’s proficiency arrives at the secondthreshold.
Besides, this study also discusses the issues of semantic transfer andconceptual transfer from the L2(Chinese). The semantic errors may resulte fromthe difference between the L2(Chinese) and L3(English) in the level ofabstraction at which categorization is made. A single category in L2(Chinese)may correspond to several categories in L3(English). On the other hand, theymay pertain to the way of learners’ mental association between the L2(Chinese)and L3(English). A negative transfer may occur when the form that a learnerselects in L3(English) does not match with the meaning of a L2(Chinese) word.
In conceptual level, these transferred errors are in relation to the differencesbetween L2(Chinese) and L3(English) in three conceptual domains: number,time, and space. These errors may firstly stem from the differences between L2(Chinese) and L3(English) in the linguistic encoding and thus linguistic salienceof a particular domain in L2(Chinese) is not the same as L3(English): Chineseis a classifier language, while English noun class language. Chinese is short ofmorphology, while English rich in it. Secondly, it seems that the morphologicaland semantic errors also pertain to the learners’ limited knowledge in target language, low language awareness and automatization.Thirdly, the cause may liein English teaching where teachers tend to ignore the necessity of making adistinction for the meaning between implicit and explicit knowledge.
As for the results of L2(Chinese) influence on the L3(English) acquisition,it is positive as far as the common underlying language proficiency is concerned,while it is negative in the production of English writing. Why is the L2(Chinese)influence on the L3(English) acquisition of Xinjiang minority students differenton underlying and observable language levels?
Reasons may be the following ones. First, the retrieval mechanisms aresimply different between comprehension and production. Comprehensionprocess is from form (sound) to meaning, focusing on decoding of contextualmeaning. Production process is from meaning to sound. The speaker starts bycreating a meaning and then search for the word form associated with just thatmeaning. The word form is further converted into a phonological shape foronward processing into speech. This means that a greater task effort is requiredby the learner in production than in comprehension. Second, differentcross-linguistic similarities are used in comprehension and production. Incomprehension, perceived similarities are frequently employed by the learners totheir prior languages. In production, assumed similarities are used. They assumethat there will be similarities between the vocabulary and syntax of their priorlanguages and the meanings or functions of target language but, when thesesimilarities are merely assumed, there is a considerable risk of errors. Third, it isthe learners’ linguistic proficiency that matters. When their competence is beyond the upper threshold, their highly developed common underlyingproficiency will facilitate the transfer of cognitive/academic abilities from onelanguage into the other, and what’s more, transfer is more likely to occur with‘deeper’ aspects of language proficiency such as reading comprehension, sincereading comprehension is not to be taught separately twice over, but as onesingle underlying ability which can be practiced in more than one language.When their competence is at the low threshold, negative effects can not beavoided.
The discussion for L2(Chinese) transfer is done from four perspectives:linguistic and psycholinguistic, cognitive linguistic, cumulative languageexperience and knowledge, and sociolinguistic. It suggests that L2(Chinese)transfer is the result of interaction of different factors, and language typologyand language proficiency are the key ones. Transfer is a necessary part ofmultilingual acquisition, and prior linguistic knowledge will definitely influencelater language acquisition.
The conclusion drawn from this study is that L2(Chinese) proficiency isthe initial state of Xinjiang minority students’ L3(English) acquisition. L2(Chinese) has a more significant influence on their L3(English) learning,compared with their mother tongue, and can be used as a predictor for their L3(English) proficiency. It seems that there is a threshold in the L3(English)acquisition. Only when a learner’s proficiency arrives at the first threshold can apositive effect of bilingualism begin to demonstrate.
The findings may have certain implications for trilingual education in the minority areas of our country. That is, L2(Chinese) learning will have a positiveeffect in that it can promote and assist the development of learners’metalinguistic awareness, which will in turn facilitate L3(English) acquisition.Therefore, it is better for minority learners to learn L2(Chinese) well in order toacquire proficiency in L3(English).
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