摘要
欺骗行为是一种常见的社会现象,也是心理学家、经济学家及犯罪学家关注的热点问题。本研究分别从儿童和成人“主动”欺骗行为入手,分析在实验室情景下的“主动”欺骗的行为特点及其表现出来的表情特征,从社会认知角度出发探查影响欺骗行为的各个社会认知因素,对欺骗行为的神经机制进行研究,并探讨主动欺骗行为的发展机制。
第一部分研究利用实验的方法来研究儿童和成人在实验室情景下“主动”欺骗行为及表情特征的特点。第一节探讨成人的主动欺骗行为,通过设计一个猜硬币的范式来探查成人是否会在该情景下产生多次的主动欺骗行为,同时记录被试的面部表情,然后通过计算机程序来识别表情特征,探讨用计算机程序来自动识别欺骗和诚实的表情特征上的可能性：研究结果发现89%的被试存在欺骗行为,在说谎和说真话条件下在脸颊上抬、嘴角外拉、眼睛睁大、眨眼、害怕和眉毛下压这六个表情特征上有显著差异。第二节探讨7一12岁儿童的主动欺骗行为的发展特点及其表情特征。结果发现小学儿童在一定的实验室情景下能够产生多次的欺骗行为,欺骗行为的发生率随着年龄的增加而减少,且个体欺骗行为的发生率也是随着年龄的增加而减少。通过表情特征分析发现,儿童在说谎的时候比说真话的时候在害怕、眨眼、嘴巴张大、微笑、嘴角下压等特征上有显著差异,但是表情特征的差异值和年龄没有显著相关。
第二部分研究立足于探讨儿童和成人主动欺骗行为的影响因素。第二部分第一节是考察成人主动欺骗行为的影响因素,利用问卷的方法来测查成人的人格特征,系统全面考察各个人格因素(例如,大五人格、信任性、诚实性、马基雅维里主义)对欺骗行为的影响,结果发现只有开放性和欺骗行为有关系,其它人格因素对欺骗行为的影响并不显著。第二部分第二节的目的是考察儿童的主动欺骗行为的影响因素,利用问卷的方法测查儿童的人格特点,利用实验方法来测查儿童的心理理论、执行功能、道德概念等,探讨这些因素与儿童主动欺骗行为之间的相互关系。研究证明,7—12岁的儿童的欺骗与否会随着年龄而减少,执行功能与其欺骗行为显著相关：反应抑制能力与是否欺骗呈负相关关系,而认知灵活度和任务操纵能力与其欺骗策略数量呈正相关关系；这说明执行功能在对欺骗行为的作用犹如一把双刃剑：它一方面可以抑制欺骗行为,而在另一方面它却能促进欺骗水平的提高。但是人格因素和道德概念等均和儿童欺骗行为没有相关。
第三部分研究立足于探讨儿童和成人主动欺骗行为背后的神经机制。第三部分第一节内容利用近红外成像的方法考察成人的“主动”欺骗行为的神经机制的特点。结果发现说谎条件比说真话条件在左侧额上回引起更大的[oxy-Hb]信号变化。这说明,主动欺骗和被动欺骗一样,是一种需要大量执行功能的任务。我们还发现在同样说真话情况下,猜对了说真话要比猜错了说真话在前额叶上引起更大的神经活动变化,说明奖赏机制也参与到了主动欺骗行为当中。此外,我们还发现猜对说真话条件下要比猜错说谎条件下在右额中回产生更大的[oxy-Hb]和1[deoxy-Hb]言号变化,这两者的信号差异可能是由于对行为结果的自我评价不同而造成的。
第三部分第二节内容是利用近红外成像的方法来考察儿童的“主动”欺骗行为的神经机制的特点,比较儿童与成人的欺骗行为的神经机制的异同点,以及儿童欺骗行为与其神经生理指标之间的相互关系。结果发现：7—12岁的儿童已具备在说谎所需的抑制控制能力,在猜错了说谎条件要比猜错了说真话条件在前额叶引起更大的激活；在儿童中,猜对了说真话条件要比猜错了说真话要在前额叶引起更大的激活,但是猜对了说真话和猜错了说假话在前额叶的激活差异并不明显,此外,猜对了说真话利猜错了说真话引起的[oxy-Hb]差异值和年龄之间存在负相关,且其能够预测儿童是否欺骗。这些结果说明,和成人类似,执行功能和奖赏机制都在儿童欺骗行为中起重要作用,但是小学儿童对诚实获得与不诚实获得的自我评价机制尚未发展成熟。
Deception is very common in our everyday lives. The studies on the deceptive behavior have endured for one century. The present dissertation aimed to explore the cognitive, social and neural correlates underlying the spontaneous deception as well as the development of the spontaneous deception.
The first part of the present dissertation (chapter2) examined both elementary children and adults'spontaneous behavior and their face expression features. In the study1, we designed a guessing game to examine whether the adults could deceive repeatedly and compare the differences of face expression between lying and telling truth. The guessing game was modeled after Greene&Paxton (2009) and the Computer Expression Recognition Toolbox (CERT) was used to recognize participants'face expression. The results showed that about89%of adults lied at lease once and there were significant differences of face expression (chin raise, lip corner pull, eye widen, blink eye closure, fear brow, brow lower) between lying and telling truth. In the study2, we designed a similar guessing game to explore the development of spontaneous deception and its face expression features in elementary school children. The results showed that about58%of elementary school children lied at lease once, and they were less likely to lie and lie less while age increased. The results also found that there were significant differences of face expression (fear brow, blink eye closure, lip stretch, smile, lip corner depressor) between children's lying and telling truth, however, there was no significant relationship between intensity of face expression and age.
The second part of the present dissertation (chapter3) examined adults and children's spontaneous deception and their social and cognitive correlates. In the study1, we examined whether adults' spontaneous deception were associated with personality factors. The big five factor, rotter trust scale, Machiavellianism scale and honesty scale were used to measure participants' personality. The results showed that the openness in big five factors was significantly associated with deceptive behavior:the higher openness score was, the more they were likely to lie and lie more. In the study2, we examined the cognitive and social factors that were associated with children's spontaneous deceptive behavior. In addition to the guessing game, children performed second-order false-belief tasks that assessed their theory of mind understanding. Children also performed three tasks that assessed their executive function ability:Digit Span forwards and backwards were used as short-term and working memory measures respectively, and the Word-Color Stroop task and the Flanker Fish task were used as inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility measures. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire for children (EPQC) was used to measure children's personality, and four moral stories were used to measure children's moral conception and judgment about lying and truth telling. The results indicate that, with increased inhibitory control ability, children were significantly less likely to lie; among the liars, children with better task management and cognitive flexibility were more adept at lying and adopting different tactics. Results revealed the unique role that executive functioning plays in children's deceptive behavior:Like a double-edged sword, executive functioning can inhibit children's deceptive behavior on the one side, while it can promote children's sophistication of deceptive tactics on the other.
The third part of the present study (chapter4) aimed to explore the neural correlates underlying the adults and children's spontaneous deception. In the study1, we recorded neural responses of adults during the game using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). We found that the incorrect-lie trials elicited significantly greater oxygenated hemoglobin ([Oxy-Hb]) changes in the left superior frontal gyrus, relative to the incorrect-truth trials. This finding suggests that spontaneous deception, like instructed deception, is an executive functioning intensive task and engenders greater involvement of the prefrontal cortical executive function network in spontaneous deception. We also found that the correct-truth trials produced greater neural activities in the frontal area than the incorrect-truth trials, a pattern suggesting the involvement of the reward system. Furthermore, the present study confirmed the feasibility of using NIRS to study deception. In the study2, among all children, the results showed that the correct-truth condition produced larger [oxy-Hb] signals than the incorrect-truth condition in the right superior frontal gyrus and the left superior frontal gyrus. Similar to findings from studies with adults, executive functioning and the reward system were activated when children lied. Contrary to the results with adults, no significant correlation was found between the correct-truth and the incorrect-lie condition. Results revealed that, like adults, executive functioning and the reward network play an important role in children's spontaneous deception. However, findings indicated that differentiated self-evaluations in terms of dishonestly gained points vs. honestly gained points has yet to develop by this point in childhood.
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