摘要
本研究利用手动静态箱-气相色谱法进行了连续5个生长季(2007~2009)的双季稻田温室气体(GHGs)(甲烷(CH_4)和氧化亚氮(N_2O))排放观测,同时监测了环境因子的变化,包括气温、土壤温度、土壤pH值、氧化还原电位(Eh)、田间水层高度(H)、土壤有机质和土壤产气微生物菌群等。试验共设7个处理:翻耕稻草不还田(CWS)、免耕稻草不还田(NWS)、翻耕稻草不还田+硫包膜控释尿素(SCU)、免耕高茬还田(HN)、翻耕高茬还田(HC)、免耕覆盖还田(SN)以及免耕覆盖还田+淹灌(SNF)。分析了稻田GHGs排放季节变化规律,进行了GHGs排放与环境因子关系的多元回归,计算了各处理的综合温室效应,以探讨田间管理措施对华中典型双季稻田温室气体排放强度(GHGI)的影响,并优选减缓措施。主要结论如下:
1)双季稻田温室气体排放具有一定的季节变化规律,表现在早晚稻差异和年际间的差异,年际间差异主要源于具体气候条件和水分状况的年际变异。CH_4排放季节变化规律比N_2O明显,绝大部分CH_4产生自水稻分蘖结束前的生长季前期,水分条件是水稻生长后期CH_4排放的控制因素。N_2O排放季节变异性和不确定性较大,观测到较多的负通量,早晚稻平均N_2O排放系数均低于1 %的IPCC推荐值。稻田CH_4和N_2O排放季节变化不具显著的交互效应。
2)回归分析表明, Eh值-100~0 mv和-150~100 mv分别是CH_4和N_2O平均排放通量最大的范围,而pH值5~6,H 1~5 cm是稻田CH_4和N_2O平均排放通量最大的范围;稻田N_2O排放主要来自反硝化过程,其吸收通量则主要出现在田间水层较高时。
3)稻田GHGs排放通量与土壤产气微生物的活性和数量密切相关,回归模型表明,土壤产甲烷菌数量可单独解释96 %的稻田CH_4排放;土壤硝化菌和反硝化菌数量则可联合解释75 %以上的N_2O排放通量。稻田土壤有机质的总量或形式对GHGs排放通量有显著影响,各处理CH_4排放通量与活性有机质含量显著相关,而N2O排放通量更依赖于土壤有机质总量。
4) CH_4是稻田温室效应的主要贡献者,各种各时间尺度上水稻田CH_4温室效应都远大于N_2O,但随着时间尺度的增加,N_2O对温室效应的贡献比例上升。
5)受水稻品种及其产量的影响,早晚稻各处理GHGI表现出不同的变化规律,纵观5个生长季平均值,SNF处理GHGI最大,而NWS处理最小,因此,NWS处理可作为减缓稻田GHGI的有效措施。考虑到各措施组合,免耕+常规尿素+稻草不还田组合是减缓稻田GHGI的优选耕作及施肥措施;间歇灌溉+中期晒田(增加间歇灌溉的频率及延长晒田日期)是减缓稻田GHGI的优选灌溉措施。
To investigate the regularity of greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) from typical double rice system of Central China under various field managements and to find a way to optimize the mitigation practices, five continuous rice growing seasons’measurement on greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission initiated from 2007 was conducted using manual static-GC (gas chromatography) method. Simultaneously, the seasonal variation of GHGs fluxes was monitored. Furthermore, the relationship of GHGs emission and environmental factors was analyzed by using the multivariate regression. There were 7 treatments involved, viz. CWS (Conventional tillage + without Straw residue + Urea), NWS (No till + without straw residue + Urea), SCU (Conventional tillage + without straw residue + Controled release urea), HN (High stubble residue + No till + Urea), HC (High stubble residue + Conventional tillage + Urea), SN (Straw cover + No till + Urea) and SNF (Straw cover + No till + Urea + Continuous flooding). The environmental elements include air temperature, soil temperature, soil redox potential (Eh), soil pH, field water table (H), soil organic matter and activity and population of soil microbes related to the production of GHGs emission from soil. The following were the main conclusions generated from this study:
1) Pronounced seasonal and annual variation of GHGs emission has been observed, i.e. different regularity exists between early rice and late rice. Climate and soil water situation of each year contrlled the annual variance of GHGs emission. Most of methane fluxes occurred during the rice growing stage before the end of tiller, the water regime predominanted the emission of methane in the late rice growing stage. However, there was great variance and uncertainty of nitrous oxide from rice paddy, tons of negative fluxes of nitrous oxide have been measured over years, while, the average emission factor of nitrous oxide from early and late rice was less than the default value of IPCC. Furthermore, there was no significant trade-off between seasonal variation of methane and nitrous flux under the effect of same treatment.
2) By the regression analysis, the largest average of methane emission occurred in the range of -100 mv
3) Strong relationship exists between GHGs emission and activity as well population of soil microbes. Population of methanogens could explain individually 96 % of the variance of methane flux from rice paddy; while the combination of population of nitrifiers and denitrifiers could explain more than 75 % of variance of nitrous oxide flux. The effect of total amount or form of soil organic matter on seasonal average fluxes of GHGs was significant. For instance, methane flux depended on labile organic matter rather than total amount of soil organic matter, while, the total amount of soil organic matter was more important to nitrous oxide emissions than the labile organic matter.
4) Most of the greenhouse effect of rice paddy was contributed by methane, calculation indexed that under impact of multiple managements and at different time scale, greenhouse effect of methane was extremely greater than nitrous oxide.
5) Consideration of greenhouse effect and rice grain yield, SNF treatment caused maximum GHGI among the 7 managements, while NWS treatment, minmum. Consequently, we recommend that the combination of no till+normal urea+no straw residue as the optimized tillage and fertilizer management; the combination of intermittent irrigation+mid-season drainage (with more frequent drainages and prolonged draining days) as the water regime to mitigate the GHGI of rice paddy.
引文
1.陈温福.北方水稻生产技术问答.中国农业出版社:北京, 2004.
2.单正军,蔡道基,任阵海.土壤有机质矿化与温室气体释放初探.环境科学学报, 1996, 16: 150~154.
3.丁维新,蔡祖聪.氮肥对土壤甲烷产生的影响.农业环境科学学报, 2003, 22(3): .
4.辜运富,张小平,涂仕华,等.长期定位施肥对紫色水稻土硝化作用及硝化细菌群落结构的影响.生态学报, 2008, 28: 2123~2130.
5.郭金如,李光锐,陈培森.我国氮肥的生产、消费和增产作用.土壤肥料, 1989, 4.
6.侯爱新,王正平.稻田CH4和N2O排放关系及其微生物学机理和一些影响因子.应用生态学报, 1997, 270~274.
7.黄国宏,韩冰.土壤含水量与N2O产生途径研究.应用生态学报, 1999, 10 (1): 53~56.
8.李方敏,樊小林,刘芳,等.控释肥料对稻田氧化亚氮排放的影响.应用生态学报, 2004, 15: 2170~2174.
9.李方敏,樊小林.控释肥对稻田CH4排放的影响.应用与环境生物学报, 2005, 11: 408~411.
10.李晶,王明星,陈德章.水稻田甲烷的减排方法研究.中国农业气象, 1997, 18: 9~14.
11.李庆逵.稻田土壤水分管理.中国水稻土.科学出版社:北京, 1992.
12.李香兰,徐华,蔡祖聪.稻田CH4和N20排放消长关系及其减排措施.农业环境科学学报, 2008, 27: 2123~2130.
13.廖西元,王志刚,方福平.中国农民种稻技术调查.北京:中国农业出版社, 2007.
14.刘金剑,吴萍萍,谢小立,等.长期不同施肥制度下湖南红壤晚稻田CH4的排放生态学报, 2008, 28: 2878~2886.
15.陆为农.中国水稻机械化辉煌十年.中国农业机械化信息网, 2008.
16.农业部全国土壤肥料总站.土壤分析与技术规范.农业出版社, 1993.
17.秦晓波,李玉娥,刘克樱,等.不同施肥处理稻田甲烷和氧化亚氮排放特征.农业工程学报, 2006a, 22: 143~148.
18.秦晓波,李玉娥,刘克樱,等.长期施肥对湖南稻田甲烷排放的影响.中国农业气象, 2006b, 27: 19~22.
19.秦晓波.长期施肥对稻田温室气体排放影响的田间观测及模拟研究.中国农业科学院研究生院,硕士学位论文, pp. 57, 2005.
20.石生伟,李玉娥,刘运通,等.中国稻田CH4和N2O排放及减排整合分析.中国农业科学, 2010, 43(14): .
21.陶战.中国不同地区稻田甲烷排放量及控制措施研究.农业环境保护, 1998, 17: 1~7.
22.王庚辰.陆地生态系统温室气体排放(吸收)测量方法简评.气候与环境研究, 1997, 2: 251~263.
23.徐阳春,沈其荣,雷宝坤,等.水旱轮作下长期免耕和施用有机肥对土壤某些肥力性状的影响,应用生态学报, 2000, 11(4): 549~552.
24.许光辉,郑洪元.土壤微生物分析方法手册.北京:农业出版社, 1986: 110~128.
25.于克伟,陈冠雄, Sten Struwe,等.农田和森林土壤中氧化亚氮的产生与还原,应用生态学报, 2000, 11(4): 385~389.
26.岳进,黄国宏,梁巍,等.不同水分管理下稻田土壤CH4和N2O排放与微生物菌群的关系.应用生态学报, 2003, 14: 2273~2277.
27.张福锁,王激清,张卫峰,等.中国主要粮食作物肥料利用率现状与提高途径.土壤学报, 2008, 45: 915~924.
28.中国科学院南京土壤所.土壤理化分析.上海科学技术出版社, 1978.
29.中国农业科学院作物区划编写组.中国农作物种植区论文集,北京:科学出版社, 1987.
30.邹国元,张福锁.根际反硝化作用与N2O释放.中国农业大学学报, 2002, 7: 77~82.
31.邹建文,黄耀,宗良纲,等.不同种类有机肥施用对稻田CH4和N2O排放的综合影响.环境科学, 2003, 24: 7~21.
32. Adamsen, A.P.S., King, G.M. Methane consumption in temperate and subarctic forest soils: Rates, vertical zonation, and responses to water and nitrogen. Journal Name: Applied and Environmental Microbiology; (United States); 1993, 59(2): 485~490.
33. Ahmad, S., Li, C., Dai, G., et al. Greenhouse gas emission from direct seeding paddy field under different rice tillage systems in central China. Soil and Tillage Research, 2009, 106: 54~61.
34. Akiyama, H., Tsuruta, H. Effect of chemical fertilizer form on N2O, NO and NO2 fluxes from Andisol field. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2002, 63: 219~230.
35. Akiyama, H., Tsuruta, H. Effect of organic matter application on N2O, NO, and NO2 fluxes from an Andisol field. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2003, 17: 1100.
36. Akiyama, H., Tsuruta, H., Watanabe, T. N2O and NO emissions from soils after the application of different chemical fertilizers. Chemosphere - Global Change Science, 2000, 2: 313~320.
37. Akiyama, H., Yagi, K., Yan, X. Direct N2O emissions from rice paddy fields: Summary of available data. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2005, 19: GB1005.
38. Allen, M.B., Niel, C.B.V. Experiments on bacterial denitrification. Journal of Bacteriology, 1952, 64: 397~412.
39. Anderson, I.C., Poth, M., Homstead, J., et al. A comparison of NO and N2O production by the autotrophic nitrifier Nitrosomonas europaea and the heterotrophic nitrifier Alcaligenes faecalis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1993, 59: 3525~3533.
40. Arah, J.R.M., K. A, S., I. J, C., et al. Nitrous oxide production and denitrification in Scottish arable soils. European Journal of Soil Science, 1991, 42: 351~367.
41. Aulakh, M.S., Rennie, D.A., Paul, E.A. Gaseous N losses from soils under zero-till as compared to conventional-till management systems. J. Environ. Qual, 1984, 13: 130~136.
42. Baggs, E., Rees, R., Smith, K., et al. Nitrous oxide emission from soils after incorporating crop residues. Soil Use and Management, 2000, 16: 82~87.
43. Baggs, E.M., Richter, M., Hartwig, U.A., et al. Long-term nitrous oxide emissions from grass swards under elevated pCO2. Paper Presented at 17th World Congress of Soil Science, Bangkok, Thailand. August 14~21, 2002.
44. Ball, B.C., Crichton, I., Horgan, G.W. Dynamics of upward and downward N2O and CO2 fluxes in ploughed or no-tilled soils in relation to water-filled pore space, compaction and crop presence. Soil and Tillage Research, 2008, 101: 20~30.
45. Ball, B.C., Dobbie, K.E., Parker, J.P., et al. The influence of gas transport and porosity on methane oxidation in soils. J. Geophys. Res, 1997, 102: 23301~23308.
46. Ball, B.C., Scott, A., Parker, J.P. Field N2O, CO2 and CH4 fluxes in relation to tillage, compaction and soil quality in Scotland. Soil and Tillage Research, 1999, 53: 29~39.
47. Banker, B.C., Kludze, H.K., Alford, D.P., et al. Methane sources and sinks in paddy rice soils: relationship to emissions. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 1995, 53: 243~251.
48. Bateman, E.J., Baggs, E.M. Contributions of nitrification and denitrification to N2O emissions from soils at different water-filled pore space. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2005, 41: 379~388.
49. Beaumont, H.J.E., Hommes, N.G., Sayavedra Soto, L.A., et al. Nitrite reductase of nitrosomonas europaea is not essential for production of gaseous nitrogen oxides and confers tolerance to nitrite. J. Bacteriol, 2002, 184: 2557~2560.
50. Beaumont, H.J.E., van Schooten, B., Lens, S.I., et al. Nitrosomonas europaea expresses a nitric oxide reductase during nitrification. J. Bacteriol, 2004, 186: 4417~4421.
51. Bergman, I., Svensson, B.H., Nilsson, M. Regulation of methane production in a Swedish acid mire by pH, temperature and substrate. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1998, 30: 729~741.
52. Blackmer, A.M., Bremner, J.M. Potential of soil as a sink for atmospheric nitrous oxide. Geophys. Res. Lett, 1976, 3: 739~742.
53. Blake, D.R., Rowland, F.S. Continuing worldwide increase in tropospheric methane, 1978 to 1987. Science, 1988, 239: 1129~1131.
54. Bock, E., Koops, H.P., Harns, H. Cell biology of nitrifying bacteria. In: J. I. Prosser (Ed.), Nitrification, IRL Press, Oxford, 1986, 17~38.
55. Bodelier, P.L.E., Roslev, P., Henckel, T., et al. Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots. Nature, 2000, 403: 421~424.
56. Bohn, H.L. Redox Potentials. Soil Science, 1971, 112: 39~45.
57. Boomsma, D.B., Pritehett, W.L. Nitrogen losses from urea, ammonium sulfate, and ammonium nitrate applications to a slash pine plantation. Soil Crop Soc. Florida Proc, 1979, 39: 19~23.
58. Bosse, U., Frenzel, P. Activity and distribution of methane-oxidizing bacteria in flooded rice soil microcosms and in rice plants (Oryza sativa). Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1997, 63, 1199~1207.
59. Bossio, D.A., Horwath, W.R., Mutters, R.G., et al. Methane pool and flux dynamics in a ricefield following straw incorporation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1999, 31: 1313~1322.
60. Bouwman, A.F. Exchange of greenhouse gases between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere In: Bouwman AF (ed) Soil and the Greenhouse Effect. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 1990, 62~127.
61. Bouwman, A.F. Direct emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1996, 46: 53~70.
62. Bouwman, A.F. Nitrogen oxides and tropical agriculture. Nature, 1998, 392: 866~867.
63. Bouwman, A.F., Boumans, L.J.M., Batjes, N.H. Modeling global annual N2O and NO emissions from fertilized fields. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2002, 16: 1080.
64. Bremner, J. Sources of nitrous oxide in soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 7~16.
65. Bronson, K.F., Neue, H.U., Abao, E.B., et al. Automated chamber measurements of methane and Nitrous Oxide flux in a flooded rice soil: I. residue, nitrogen, and water management. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1997, 61: 981~987.
66. Buresh, R.J., De Datta, S.K., Samson, M.I., et al. Dinitrogen and Nitrous Oxide flux from urea basally applied to puddled rice soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1991, 55: 268~273.
67. Butterbach Bahl, K., Breuer, L., Gasche, R., et al. Exchange of trace gases between soils and the atmosphere in Scots pine forest ecosystems of the northeastern German lowlands: 1. Fluxes of N2O, NO/NO2 and CH4 at forest sites with different N-deposition. Forest Ecology and Management, 2002, 167: 123~134.
68. Cai, Z., Xing, G., Yan, X., et al. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from rice paddy fields as affected by nitrogen fertilisers and water management. Plant and Soil, 1997, 196: 7~14.
69. Cai, Z.C., Xing, G.X., Shen, G.Y., et al. Measurements of CH4 and N2O emissions from rice paddies in Fengqiu, China. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 1999, 45: 1~13.
70. Castro, M., Steudler, P., Melillo, J., et al. Exchange of N2O and CH4 between the atmosphere and soils in spruce-fir forests in the northeastern United States. Biogeochemistry, 1992, 18: 119~135.
71. Castro, M.S., Steudler, P.A., Melillo, J.M., et al. Factors controlling atmospheric methane consumption by temperate forest soils. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1995, 9: 1~10.
72. Cates, R.L., Jr., Keeney, D.R. Nitrous Oxide Production throughout the Year from Fertilized and Manured Maize Fields. J Environ Qual, 1987, 16: 443~447.
73. Chalk, P.M., Smith, C.J. Chemodenitrification. In 'Gaseous loss of nitrogen from plant-soil systems'. (Eds JR Freney, JR Simpson) , 1983, 65~89.
74. Chang, C., Janzen, H.H., Nakonechny, E.M., et al. Nitrous Oxide Emission through Plants. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1998, 62, 35~38.
75. Chapuis Lardy, L., Wrage, N., Metay, A.I., et al. Soils, a sink for N2O? A review. Global Change Biology, 2007, 13: 1~17.
76. Choudhary, M.A., Akramkhanov, A., Saggar, S. Nitrous oxide emissions from a New Zealandcropped soil: tillage effects, spatial and seasonal variability. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2002, 93: 33~43.
77. Ciarlo, E., Conti, M., Bartoloni, N., et al. Soil N2O emissions and N2O/(N2O+N2) ratio as affected by different fertilization practices and soil moisture. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2008, 44: 991~995.
78. Cicerone, R.J. Analysis of sources and sinks of atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O). J. Geophys. Res, 1989, 94: 18265~18271.
79. Cicerone, R.J., Oremland, R.S. Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1988, 2: 299~327.
80. Clayton, H., Arah, J.R.M., Smith, K.A. Measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized grassland using closed chambers. J. Geophys. Res, 1994, 99: 16599~16607.
81. Clayton, H., McTaggart, I.P., Parker, J., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilised grassland: A 2-year study of the effects of N fertiliser form and environmental conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1997, 25: 252~260.
82. Cochran W G. Estimation of Bacterial Densities by Means of the "Most Probable Number". Biometrics, 1950, 6: 105~116.
83. Colbourn, P. Denitrification and N2O production in pasture soil: the influence of nitrogen supply and moisture. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 1992, 39: 267~278.
84. Cole, J.A. Assimilatory and dissimilatory reduction of nitrate to ammonia In the Nitrogen and Sulphur cycles, eds J. A. Cole and S. J. Ferguson. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988, 281~329.
85. Conrad, R. Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases (H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO). Microbiol. Rev, 1996, 60: 609~640.
86. Conrad, R., Bak, F., Seitz, H.J., et al. Hydrogen turnover by psychrotrophic homoacetogenic and mesophilic methanogenic bacteria in anoxic paddy soil and lake sediment. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1989, 62: 285~293.
87. Conrad, R., Lupton, F.S., Zeikus, J.G. Hydrogen metabolism and sulfate-dependant inhibition of methanogenesis in a eutrophic lake sediment. (Lake Mendota). FEMS Microbiol Ecology, 1987, 45: 107~115.
88. Conrad, R., Rothfuss, F. Methane oxidation in the soil surface layer of a flooded rice field and the effect of ammonium. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1991, 12: 28~32.
89. Cox, W.J., Zobel, R.W., van Es, H.M., et al. Tillage Effects on Some Soil Physical and Corn Physiological Characteristics. Agron J, 1990, 82: 806~812.
90. Crawford, R. Oxygen availability as an ecological limit to plant distribution. Adv. Eco. Res, 1992, 23: 93~185.
91. Dalal, R.C., Wang, W., Robertson, G.P., et al. Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 2003, 41: 165~195.
92. Davidson, E.A. Fluxes of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide from terrestrial ecosystems. In microbial production and consumption of greenhouse gases: methane, nitrogen oxide and halomethanes, eds J.E. Rogers and W.B. Whitman. American society of microbiology, Washington DC, 1991, 219~235.
93. Davidson, E.A., Keller, M., Erickson, H.E., et al. Testing a conceptual model of soil emissions of nitrous and nitric oxides. BioScience, 2000, 50: 667~680.
94. De Datta, S.K., 1981. Principles and Practices of Rice Production. J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
95. de Klein, C.A.M., Sherlock, R.R., Cameron, K.C., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils in New Zealand-A review of current knowledge and directions for future research. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 2001, 31: 543~574.
96. Del Grosso, S.J., Mosier, A.R., Parton, W.J., et al. DAYCENT model analysis of past and contemporary soil N2O and net greenhouse gas flux for major crops in the USA. Soil & Tillage Research, 2005, 83: 9~24.
97. Delgado, J.A., Mosier, A.R. Mitigation alternatives to decrease nitrous oxides emissions and urea-nitrogen loss and their effect on methane flux. J. Environ. Qual, 1996, 25: 1105~1111.
98. Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., Neue, H.U. Impact of gypsum application on the methane emission from a wetland rice field. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1994, 8: 127~134.
99. Denman, K.L., Brasseur, G., Chidthaisong, A., et al. Couplings between changes in the climate system and biogeochemistry. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
100.Denmead, O.T., Freney, J.R., Simpson, J.R. Nitrous oxide emission during denitrification in a flooded field. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1979, 43: 716~718.
101.Ding, W., Cai, Y., Cai, Z., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from an intensively cultivated maize-wheat rotation soil in the North China Plain. Science of The Total Environment, 2007, 373: 501~511.
102.Dlugokencky, E.J., Houweling, S., Bruhwiler, L., et al. Atmospheric methane levels off: Temporary pause or a new steady-state? Geophys. Res. Lett, 2003, 30: 1992.
103.Dlugokencky, E.J., Walter, B.P., Masarie, K.A., et al. Measurements of an anomalous global methane increase during 1998. Geophys. Res. Lett, 2001, 28: 499~502.
104.Dobbie, K.E., Smith, K.A. Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables. Global Change Biology, 2003, 9: 204~218.
105.Donald, I.R.M., H, G.H., P, R.W., et al. Methane oxidation potential and preliminary analysis of methanotrophs in blanket bog peat using molecular ecology techniques. FEMS MicrobiolEcology, 1996, 21: 197~211.
106.Doran, J.W. Soil Microbial and Biochemical Changes Associated with Reduced Tillage. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1980, 44: 765~771.
107.Dorland, S., Beauchamp, E.G. Denitrification and ammonification at low soil temperatures. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 1991, 71: 293~303.
108.Douglas, J.T., Crawford, C.E. The response of a ryegrass sward to wheel traffic and applied nitrogen. Grass & Forage Science, 1993, 48: 91~100.
109.Drew, M.C. Oxygen deficiency in the root environment and plant mineral nutrition. In: Jackson MB, Davies DD & Lambers H (Eds) Plant Life under Oxygen Deprivation. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, 1991, 303~316.
110.Dunfield, P., knowles, R., Dumont, R., et al. Methane production and consumption in temperate and subarctic peat soils: Response to temperature and pH. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1993, 25: 321~326.
111.Dupain, S., Germon, J.C. Nitrification of an ammonical effluent percolating through an inoculated sand column at different temperatures. In: R. Calvet (Editor), Nitrates-Agri-culture-Eau. INRA, Pards, 1990, 181~188.
112.Eichner, M.J. Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Fertilized Soils: Summary of Available Data. J. Environ. Qual, 1990, 19: 272~280.
113.Elder, J.W., Lal, R. Tillage effects on gaseous emissions from an intensively farmed organic soil in North Central Ohio. Soil and Tillage Research, 2008, 98: 45~55.
114.Ellis, S., Yamulki, S., Dixon, E., et al. Denitrification and N2O emissions from a UK pasture soil following the early spring application of cattle slurry and mineral fertiliser. Plant and Soil, 1998, 202: 15~25.
115.Elmi, A., Madramootoo, C., Hamel, C., et al. Denitrification and nitrous oxide to nitrous oxide plus dinitrogen ratios in the soil profile under three tillage systems. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2003, 38: 340~348.
116.Estavillo, J.M., Merino, P., Pinto, M., et al. Short term effect of ploughing a permanent pasture on N2O production from nitrification and denitrification. Plant and Soil, 2002, 239: 253~265.
117.Etheridge, D.M., Steele, L.P., Francey, R.J., et al. Atmospheric methane between 1000 A.D. and present: Evidence of anthropogenic emissions and climatic variability. J. Geophys. Res, 1998, 103: 15979~15993.
118.Ettwig, K.F., Butler, M.K., Le Paslier, D., et al. Nitrite-driven anaerobic methane oxidation by oxygenic bacteria. Nature, 2010, 464: 543~548.
119.Ferguson, S.J. Denitrification and its control. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 1994, 66: 89~110.
120.Firestone, M.K., Tiedje, J.M. Temporal Change in Nitrous Oxide and Dinitrogen from Denitrification Following Onset of Anaerobiosis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1979, 38: 673~679.
121.Flechard, C.R., Ambus, P., Skiba, U., et al. Effects of climate and management intensity on nitrous oxide emissions in grassland systems across Europe. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2007, 121: 135~152.
122.Flessa, H., Wild, U., Klemisch, M., et al. Nitrous oxide and methane fluxes from organic soils under agriculture. European Journal of Soil Science, 1998, 49: 327~335.
123.Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., et al. Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007, 129~234.
124.Freney, J.R., Denmead, O.T., Watanabe, I., et al. Ammonia and nitrous oxide losses following applications of ammonium sulfate to flooded rice. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 1981, 32: 37~45.
125.Frenzel, P., Rothfuss, F., Conrad, R. Oxygen profiles and methane turnover in a flooded rice microcosm. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1992, 14: 84~89.
126.Frimpong, K.A., Baggs, E.M. Do combined applications of crop residues and inorganic fertilizer lower emission of N2O from soil? Soil Use and Management, 2010, 26: 412~424.
127.Fuglestvedt, J.S., Berntsen, T.K., Godal, O., et al. Metrics of Climate Change: Assessing Radiative Forcing and Emission Indices. Climatic Change, 2003, 58: 267~331.
128.Fuglestvedt, J.S., Berntsen, T.K., Godal, O., et al. Climate implications of GWP-based reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett, 2000, 27: 409~412.
129.Gambrell, R.P., Patrick, W.H. Chemical and microbiological properties of anaerobic soils and sediments. In: Hook DD & Crawford RMM (Eds) Plant Life in Anaerobic Environments. Ann Arbor Science Publ Inc, Ann Arbor, 1978, 375~423.
130.Garcia, J.L., Patel, B.K.C., Ollivier, B. Taxonomic, Phylogenetic, and Ecological Diversity of Methanogenic Archaea. Anaerobe, 2000, 6: 205~226.
131.Giltrap, D.L., Li, C., Saggar, S. DNDC: A process-based model of greenhouse gas fluxes from agricultural soils. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2010, 136: 292~300.
132.Gli?ski, J., Stêpniewska, Z. An evolution of soil resistance to reduction processes. Polish J. Soil Sci, 1986, 19: 15~19.
133.Global Warming Fact, 2010. www.globalwarmingfact.com
134.Goodroad, L.L., Keeney, D.R. Nitrous oxide production in aerobic soils under varying pH, temperature and water content. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1984, 16: 39 ~ 43.
135.Goodroad, L.L., Keeney, D.R., Peterson, L.A. Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Agricultural Soils in Wisconsin. J. Environ. Qual, 1984, 13: 557 ~ 561.
136.Granli, T., B?ckman, O.C. Temperature and season, nitrogen oxide from agriculture. Norwegian J. Agric. Sci, 1994, 12: 71~75.
137.Gregorich, E.G., Rochette, P., St Georges, P., et al. Tillage effects on N2O emissions fromsoils under corn and soybeans in eastern Canada. Can. J. Soil Sci, 2008, 88: 153~161.
138.Gregorich, E.G., Rochette, P., VandenBygaart, A.J., et al. Greenhouse gas contributions of agricultural soils and potential mitigation practices in Eastern Canada. Soil & Tillage Research, 2005, 83: 53~72.
139.Guo, J., Zhou, C. Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation measures in Chinese agroecosystems. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 2007, 142: 270~277.
140.Hütsch, B.W. Tillage and land use effects on methane oxidation rates and their vertical profiles in soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1998, 27: 284~292.
141.Hütsch, B.W., Webster, C.P., Powlson, D.S. Methane oxidation in soil as affected by land use, soil pH and N fertilization. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1994, 26: 1613~1622.
142.Hansen, S., M?hlum, J.E., Bakken, L.R. N2O and CH4 fluxes in soil influenced by fertilization and tractor traffic. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1993, 25: 621~630.
143.Hanson, R.S., Hanson, T.E. Methanotrophic bacteria. Microbiological Reviews, 1996, 60: 439~471.
144.Hastings, A.F., Wattenbach, M., Eugster, W., et al. Uncertainty propagation in soil greenhouse gas emission models: An experiment using the DNDC model and at the Oensingen cropland site. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2010, 136: 97~110.
145.Heincke, M., Kaupenjohann, M. Effects of soil solution on the dynamics of N2O emissions: a review. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1999, 55: 133~157.
146.Helgason, B., Janzen, H., Chantigny, M., et al. Toward Improved Coefficients for Predicting Direct N2O Emissions from Soil in Canadian Agroecosystems. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2005, 72: 87~99.
147.Holzapfel Pschorn, A., Conrad, R., Seiler, W. Production, oxidation and emission of methane in rice paddies. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1985, 31: 343~351.
148.Holzapfel Pschorn, A., Conrad, R., Seiler, W. Effects of vegetation on the emission of methane from submerged paddy soil. Plant and Soil, 1986, 92: 223~233.
149.Hook, D.D. Adaptations to ?ooding with fresh water. In: Kozlowski TT (Ed) Flooding and Plant Growth. Academic Press, New York, 1984, 265~294.
150.Hou, A., Akiyama, H., Nakajima, Y., et al. Effects of urea form and soil moisture on N2O and NO emissions from Japanese Andosols. Chemosphere - Global Change Science, 2000a, 2: 321~327.
151.Hou, A.X., Chen, G.X., Wang, Z.P., et al. Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from a Rice Field in Relation to Soil Redox and Microbiological Processes. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2000b, 64: 2180~2186.
152.Hu, Z., Zhang, J., Li, S., et al. Effect of aeration rate on the emission of N2O in anoxic-aerobic sequencing batch reactors (A/O SBRs). Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2010, 109: 487~491.
153.Huang, Y., Zou, J., Zheng, X., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions as influenced by amendment of plant residues with different C:N ratios. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2004, 36: 973~981.
154.Husin, Y.A., Murdiyarso, D., Khalil, M.A.K., et al. Methane flux from Indonesian wetland rice: the effects of water management and rice variety. Chemosphere, 1995, 31: 3153~3180.
155.Hutchinson, G.L., Mosier, A.R. Nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated cornfield. Science, 1979, 205: 1125~1127.
156.IPCC. Climate Change: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Scientifi c Assessment [Houghton, J.T., G.J. Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1990, 364 pp.
157.IPCC. Climate change 1992. In The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment (J. T. Houghton, B. A. Callender and S. K. Varney, Eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992.
158.IPCC. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook, vol. 2, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1997.
159.IPCC. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2001, 881 pp.
160.IPCC. Volume 4 Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. In: Eggleston, H.S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. and Tanabe, K. (Eds.), 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme. IGES, Japan, 2006.
161.IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, 2007.
162.Jantalia, C., dos Santos, H., Urquiaga, S., et al. Fluxes of nitrous oxide from soil under different crop rotations and tillage systems in the South of Brazil. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2008, 82: 161~173.
163.Jenkins, D. Sewage treatment. In: Rainbow C & Rose AH (eds). Academic Press, New York, USA, 1993, 508~536.
164.Jia, Z., Cai, Z., Xu, H., et al. Effect of rice plants on CH4 production, transport, oxidation and emission in rice paddy soil. Plant and Soil, 2001, 230: 211~221.
165.Jiang, C., Wang, Y., Hao, Q., et al. Effect of land-use change on CH4 and N2O emissions from freshwater marsh in Northeast China. Atmospheric Environment, 2009, 43: 3305~3309.
166.Jiang, J., Hu, Z., Sun, W., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from Chinese cropland fertilized with a range of slow-release nitrogen compounds. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2010, 135: 216~225.
167.Johnson Beebout, S.E., Angeles, O.R., Alberto, M.C.R., et al. Simultaneous minimization of nitrous oxide and methane emission from rice paddy soils is improbable due to redox potentialchanges with depth in a greenhouse experiment without plants. Geoderma, 2009, 149: 45~53.
168.Johnson, J.M.F., Franzluebbers, A.J., Weyers, S.L., et al. Agricultural opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental Pollution, 2007, 150: 107~124.
169.Jones, H.A., Nedwell, D.B. Methane emission and methane oxidation in land-fill cover soil. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1993, 102: 185~195.
170.Jones, S.K., Rees, R.M., Skiba, U.M., et al. Influence of organic and mineral N fertiliser on N2O fluxes from a temperate grassland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2007, 121: 74~83.
171.Joulian, C., Escoffier, S., Le Mer, J., et al. Populations and potential activities of methanogens and methanotrophs in rice fields: Relations with soil properties. European Journal of Soil Biology, 1997, 33: 105~116.
172.Jugsujinda, A., DeLaune, R.D., Lindau, C.W. Influence of nitrate on methane production and oxidation in flooded soil. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 1995, 26: 2449~2459.
173.Justice, J.K., Smith, R.L. Nitrification of ammonium sulphate in a calcareous soil as influenced by combination of moisture, temperature and levels of added N. Proceedings. Soil Science Society of America, 1962, 26: 246~250.
174.Kaiser, E.A., Kohrs, K., Kücke, M., et al. Nitrous oxide release from arable soil: Importance of N-fertilization, crops and temporal variation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1998, 30: 1553~1563.
175.Kanno, T., Miura, Y., Tsuruta, H., et al. Methane emission from rice paddy fields in all of Japanese prefecture. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 147~151.
176.Kaspar, H.F. Nitrite reduction to nitrous oxide by propionibacteria: Detoxication mechanism. Archives of Microbiology, 1982, 133: 126~130.
177.Keeney, D.R., Fillery, I.R., Marx, G.P. Effect of temperature on the gaseous nitrogen products of denitrification in a silt loam soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1979, 43: 1124~1128.
178.Keerthisinghe, D.G., Xin Jian, L., Qi X, L., et al. Effect of encapsulated calcium carbide and urea application methods on denitrification and N loss from flooded rice. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1995, 45: 31~36.
179.Keller, M., Veldkamp, E., Weitz, A.M., et al. Effect of pasture age on soil trace-gas emissions from a deforested area of Costa Rica. Nature, 1993, 365: 244~246.
180.Kesik, M., Blagodatsky, S., Papen, H., et al. Effect of pH, temperature and substrate on N2O, NO and CO2 production by Alcaligenes faecalis p. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2006, 101: 655~667.
181.Kessavalou, A., Mosier, A.R., Doran, J.W., et al. Fluxes of Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, and Methane in Grass Sod and Winter Wheat-Fallow Tillage Management. J Environ Qual, 1998, 27: 1094~1104.
182.Kettunen, R., Saarnio, S., Martikainen, P., et al. Increase of N2O Fluxes in Agricultural Peatand Sandy Soil under Elevated CO2 Concentration: Concomitant Changes in Soil Moisture, Groundwater Table and Biomass Production of Phleum pratense. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2006, 74: 175~189.
183.Khalil, M., Rasmussen, R. Methane emission from rice fields in China. Envir Sci Tech, 1991, 23: 979~981.
184.Khalil, M.A.K. Working Group Report; Methane Emissions from Rice Fields. In: van Amstel A (ed) Methane and Nitrous Oxide; Methods in national Emissions inventories and options for Control Proceedings. Natl Inst Public Health and Environ Prot, Bilthoven, The Netherlands, 1993, 239~244
185.Khalil, M.A.K., Rasmussen, R.A., Shearer, M.J., et al. Emissions of methane, nitrous oxide, and other trace gases from rice fields in China. J. Geophys. Res, 1998, 103: 25241~25250.
186.Kimochi, Y., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., et al. Nitrogen removal and N2O emission in a full-scale domestic wastewater treatment plant with intermittent aeration. Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 1998, 86: 202~206.
187.King, G.M., Adamsen, A.P.S. Effects of Temperature on Methane Consumption in a Forest Soil and in Pure Cultures of the Methanotroph Methylomonas rubra. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1992, 58: 2758~2763.
188.Klüber, H.D., Conrad, R. Effects of nitrate, nitrite, NO and N2O on methanogenesis and other redox processes in anoxic rice field soil. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 1998a, 25: 301~318.
189.Klüber, H.D., Conrad, R. Inhibitory effects of nitrate, nitrite, NO and N2O on methanogenesis by Methanosarcina barkeri and Methanobacterium bryantii. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 1998b, 25: 331~339.
190.Klemedtsson, L., Von Arnold, K., Weslien, P., et al. Soil CN ratio as a scalar parameter to predict nitrous oxide emissions. Global Change Biology, 2005, 11: 1142~1147.
191.Kludze, H.K., DeLaune, R.D. Gaseous Exchange and Wetland Plant Response to Soil Redox Intensity and Capacity. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1995, 59: 939~945.
192.Kludze, H.K., DeLaune, R.D., Patrick, W.H., Jr. Aerenchyma Formation and Methane and Oxygen Exchange in Rice. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1993, 57: 386~391.
193.Knittel, K., Boetius, A. Anaerobic Oxidation of Methane: Progress with an Unknown Process. Annual Review of Microbiology, 2009, 63: 311~334.
194.Ko, J.Y., Kang, H.W. The Effects of Cultural Practices on Methane Emission from Rice Fields. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2000, 58: 311~314.
195.Kowalenko, C.G., Cameron, D.R. Nitrogen transformations in an incubated soil as affected by combinations of moisture content and temperature and adsorption-fixation of ammonium. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 1976, 56: 63~77.
196.Kralova, M., Masscheleyn, P.H., Lindau, C.W., et al. Production of dinitrogen and nitrous oxide in soil suspensions as affected by redox potential. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 1992, 61: 37~45.
197.Kroeze, C., Dumont, E., Seitzinger, S.P. New estimates of global emissions of N2O from rivers, estuaries and continental shelves. Environ. Sci, 2005, 2(2-3): 159~165.
198.Kumaraswamy, S., Kumar Rath, A., Ramakrishnan, B., et al. Wetland rice soils as sources and sinks of methane: a review and prospects for research. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2000, 31: 449~461.
199.Lauren, J.G., Pettygrove, G.S., Duxbury, J.M. Methane emissions associated with a green manure amendment to flooded rice in California. Biogeochemistry, 1994, 24: 53~65.
200.Le Mer, J., Escoffier, S., Chessel, C., et al. Microbiological aspects of methane emission in a ricefield soil from the Camargue (France): 2. Methanotrophy and related microflora, 1996.
201.Le Mer, J., Roger, P. Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by : soils: A review. European Journal of Soil Biology, 2001, 37, 25~50. doi:10.1016/S1164-5563(1001)01067-01066
202.Leffelaar, P.A., Wessel, W.W. Denitrification in a homogeneous, closed system: experiment and simulation. Soil Science, 1988, 146: 335~349.
203.Lessard, R., Rochette, P., Topp, E., et al. Methane and carbondioxide fluxes from poorly drained adjacent cultivated and forest sites. Can. J. Soil Sci, 1994, 74: 139~146.
204.Letey, J., Valoras, N., Focht, D.D., et al. Nitrous Oxide Production and Reduction during Denitrification as Affected by Redox Potential. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1981, 45: 727~730.
205.Li, C., Frolking, S., Xiao, X., Moore, B., et al. Modeling impacts of farming management alternatives on CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions: A case study for water management of rice agriculture of China. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2005, 19: GB3010.
206.Li, C.S., Frolking, S., Frolking, T.A. A model of nitrous-oxide evolution from soil driven by rainfall events. 1. Model structure and sensitivity. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres, 1992, 97: 9759~9776.
207.Lindau, C., Bollich, P., Delaune, R., et al. Effect of urea fertilizer and environmental factors on CH4 emissions from a Louisiana, USA rice field. Plant and Soil, 1991, 136: 195~203.
208.Lindau, C.W., Bollich, P.K. Methane emissions from Louisiana first and ratoon crop rice. Soil Science, 1993, 156: 42~48.
209.Lindau, C.W., Bollich, P.K., DeLaune, R.D., et al. Methane mitigation in flooded Louisiana rice fields. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1993, 15: 174~178.
210.Lindau, C.W., Patrick, W.H., Delaune, R.D., et al. Rate of accumulation and emission of N2, N2O and CH4 from a flooded rice soil. Plant and Soil, 1990, 129: 269~276.
211.Linn, D.M., Doran, J.W. Effect of Water-Filled Pore Space on Carbon Dioxide and Nitrous Oxide Production in Tilled and Nontilled Soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1984, 48: 1267~1272.
212.Littell, R.C., Henry, P.R., Ammerman, C.B. Statistical analysis of repeated measures data using SAS procedures. J. Anim Sci, 1998, 76: 1216~1231.
213.Littell, R.C., Milliken, G.A., Stroup, W.W., et al. SAS system for mixed models. SAS Institute. Cary, NC (USA) , 1996, 633 pp
214.Liu, S., Qin, Y., Zou, J., et al. Effects of water regime during rice-growing season on annual direct N2O emission in a paddy rice-winter wheat rotation system in southeast China. Science of The Total Environment, 2010, 408: 906~913.
215.Liu, X., Mosier, A., Halvorson, A., et al. The Impact of Nitrogen Placement and Tillage on NO, N2O, CH4 and CO2 Fluxes from a Clay Loam Soil. Plant and Soil, 2006, 280: 177~188.
216.Lu, Y., Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., et al. Dissolved organic carbon and methane emissions from a rice paddy fertilized with ammonium and nitrate. American Society of Agronomy, 2000a, 29: 1733~1740.
217.Lu, Y., Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., et al. Dynamics of Dissolved Organic Carbon and Methane Emissions in a Flooded Rice Soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2000b, 64: 2011~2017.
218.Luo, J., de Klein, C.A.M., Ledgard, S.F., et al. Management options to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from intensively grazed pastures: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2010, 136: 282~291.
219.Ma, B.L., Wu, T.Y., Tremblay, N., et al. Nitrous oxide fluxes from corn fields: on-farm assessment of the amount and timing of nitrogen fertilizer. Global Change Biology, 2010, 16: 156~170.
220.Maag, M., Vinther, F.P. Nitrous oxide emission by nitrification and denitrification in different soil types and at different soil moisture contents and temperatures. Applied Soil Ecology, 1996, 4: 5~14.
221.Magnusson, T. Studies of soil characteristics and the related soil atmosphere in forest mineral soils. J. Soil Sci, 1992, 43: 767~790.
222.Magnusson, T. Studies of the soil atmosphere and related physical characteristics in peat forest soils. For. Eco. Man, 1994, 67: 203~224.
223.Mancinelli, R.L. The Regulation of Methane Oxidation in Soil. Annual Review of Microbiology, 1995, 49: 581~605.
224.Mariko, S., Harazono, Y., Owa, N., et al. Methane in flooded soil water and the emission through rice plants to the atmosphere. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 1991, 31: 343~350.
225.Martens, R. Current methods for measuring microbial biomass C in soil: Potentials and limitations. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1995, 19: 87~99.
226.Martikainen, P.J., de Boer, W. Nitrous oxide production and nitrification in acidic soil from a Dutch coniferous forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1993, 25: 343~347.
227.Masscheleyn, P.H., DeLaune, R.D., Patrick Jr, W.H. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from laboratory measurements of rice soil suspension: Effect of soil oxidation-reduction status. Chemosphere, 1993, 26: 251~260.
228.Matthews, R.B., Wassmann, R., Arah, J. Using a Crop/Soil Simulation Model and GIS Techniques to Assess Methane Emissions from Rice Fields in Asia. I. Model Development. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2000, 58: 141~159.
229.McKenney, D.J., Drury, C.F., Wang, S.W. Effects of Oxygen on denitrification inhibition, repression, and derepression in soil columns. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2001, 65: 126~132.
230.McTaggart, I., Tsuruta, H. Eco-Frontier Fellowship in 1996, Environment Agency, Japan, 1997, 235~247.
231.Minami, K. Effect of nitrification inhibitors and slow-release fertilizer on emission of nitrous oxide from fertilized soils. In: Minami, K., Mosier, A.R., Sass, R. (Eds.), CH4 and N2O: Global emissions and controls from rice fields and other agricultural and industrial sources. National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tokyo, 1994, 187~196.
232.Minami, K. Atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide: sources, sinks and strategies for reducing agricultural emissions. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 203~211.
233.Minami, K., Fukushi, S. Methods for measuring N2O flux from water surface and N2O dissolved in water from agricultural land. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1984, 30: 495~501.
234.Minamikawa, K., Sakai, N., Yagi, K. Methane Emission from Paddy Fields and its Mitigation Options on a Field Scale. Microbes and Environments, 2006, 21: 135~147.
235.Mishra, S., Rath, A.K., Adhya, T.K., et al. Effect of continuous and alternate water regimes on methane efflux from rice under greenhouse conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1997, 24: 399~405.
236.Mokved, P.T., Dorsch, P., Bakken, L.R. The N2O product ratio of nitrification and its dependence on long-term changes in soil pH. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2007, 39: 2048~2057.
237.Montzka, S.A., Butler, J.H., Hall, B.D., et al. A decline in tropospheric organic bromine. Geophys. Res. Lett, 2003, 30: 1826.
238.Moore, T.R., Dalva, M. The influence of temperature and water table position on carbon dioxide and methane emissions from laboratory columns of peatland soils. European Journal of Soil Science, 1993, 44: 651~664.
239.Morris, J.G. Changes in oxygen tension and the microbial metabolism of organic carbon. In: Codd GA (Ed) Aspects of Microbial Metabolism and Ecology. Academic Press, New York, 1984, 59~96.
240.Mosier, A., Wassmann, R., Verchot, L., et al. Methane and Nitrogen Oxide Fluxes in Tropical Agricultural Soils: Sources, Sinks and Mechanisms. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 2004, 6: 11~49.
241.Mosier, A.R., Delgado, J.A., Cochran, V.L., et al. Impact of agriculture on soil consumption of atmospheric CH4 and a comparison of CH4 and N2O flux in subarctic, temperate and tropical grasslands. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 71~83.
242.Mosier, A.R., Duxbury, J.M., Freney, J.R., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural fields: Assessment, measurement and mitigation. Plant and Soil, 1996, 181: 95~108.
243.Mosier, A.R., Halvorson, A.D., Reule, C.A., et al. Net Global Warming Potential and Greenhouse Gas Intensity in Irrigated Cropping Systems in Northeastern Colorado. Journal ofenvironmental quality, 2006, 35: 1584~1598.
244.Mosier, A.R., Mohanty, S.K., Bhadrachalam, A., et al. Evolution of dinitrogen and nitrous oxide from the soil to the atmosphere through rice plants. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1990, 9: 61~67.
245.Mosier, A.R., Parton, W.J., Hutchinson, G.L. Modelling Nitrous Oxide Evolution from Cropped and Native Soils. Ecological Bulletins, 1983, 229~241.
246.Mulvaney, R.L., Khan, S.A., Mulvaney, C.S. Nitrogen fertilizers promote denitrification. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1997, 24: 211~220.
247.Murakami, T., N, O., K, K. The effects of soil conditions and nitrogen form on nitrous oxide evolution by denitrification. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1987, 33: 35~42.
248.Naser, H.M., Nagata, O., Tamura, S., et al. Methane emissions from five paddy fields with different amounts of rice straw application in central Hokkaido, Japan. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 2007, 53: 95~101.
249.Neue, H., Becker Heidmann, P., Scharpenseel, H. Organic matter dynamics, soil properties and culture practices in rice lands and their relationship to methane production. In: Bouwman AF (ed), Soils and the Greenhouse Effect. Wiley, New York, 1990, 457~466.
250.Neue, H.U. Fluxes of methane from rice fields and potential for mitigation. Soil Use and Management, 1997, 13: 258~267.
251.Neue, H.U., Lantin, R.S., Wassmann, R., et al. Methane emission from rice soils of the Philippines, in: Minami K., Mosier A., Sass R. (Eds.), CH4 and N2O. Global Emission and Controls from Ricefields and Other Agricultural and Industrial Sources, NIAES Series 2, Yokendo, Tokio, 1994, 55~63.
252.Neue, H.U., Roger, P. A. Rice Agriculture: factors controlling emissions. Springer, 1993.
253.Neue, H.U., Roger, P.A. Potential of methane emission in major rice ecologies. In: R.G Zepp, Editor, Climate Biosphere Interaction: Biogenic Emissions and Environmental Effects of Climate Change, John Wiley and Sons, 1994, 65~93.
254.Nishimura, S., Sawamoto, T., Akiyama, H., et al. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a paddy field with Japanese conventional water management and fertilizer application. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2004, 18: GB2017.
255.Nouchi, I. Mechanisms of methane transport through rice plants. In: Minami K, Mosier A & Sass R (eds), CH4 and N2O Global Emissions and Controls from Rice Fields and Other Agriculture and Industrial Sources, NIAES Series, 1992, 2: 87~104.
256.Nouchi, I., Mariko, S., Aoki, K. Mechanism of methane transport from the rhizosphere to the atmosphere through rice plants. Plant Physiol, 1990, 94: 59~66.
257.Novoa, R.S.A., Tejeda, H.R. Evaluation of the N2O emissions from N in plant residues as affected by environmental and management factors. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2006, 75: 29~46.
258.Nugroho, S.G., Lumbanraja, J., Suprapto, H., et al. Methane emission from an Indonesianpaddy field subjected to several fertilizer treatments. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 1994, 40: 275~281.
259.Nyborg, M., Laidlaw, J.W., Solberg, E.D., et al. Denitrification and nitrous oxide emissions from a Black Chernozemic soil during spring thaw in Alberta. Can. J. Soil Sci, 1997, 77: 153~160.
260.O'Neill, B.C. The Jury is Still Out on Global Warming Potentials. Climatic Change, 2000, 44: 427~443.
261.O'Neill, B.C. Economics, Natural Science, and the Costs of Global Warming Potentials. Climatic Change, 2003, 58: 251~260.
262.Oorts, K., Garnier, P., Findeling, A., et al. Modeling soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in no-till and conventional tillage using PASTIS model. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2007, 71: 336~346.
263.Oremland, R.S. No connection with methane. Nature, 2010, 464: 500~501.
264.Papen, H., Butterbach Bahl, K. A 3-year continuous record of nitrogen trace gas fluxes from untreated and limed soil of a N-saturated spruce and beech forest ecosystem in Germany 1. N2O emissions. J. Geophys. Res, 1999, 104: 18487~18503.
265.Parkin, T.B. Effect of sampling frequency on estimates of cumulative nitrous oxide emissions. Journal of environmental quality, 2008, 37: 1390~1395.
266.Parton, W.J., Holland, E.A., Grosso, S.J.D., et al. Generalized model for NOx and N2O emissions from soils. J. Geophys. Res, 2001, 106: 17403~17419.
267.Parton, W.J., Mosier, A.R., Ojima, D.S., et al. Generalized model for N2 and N2O production from nitrification and denitrification. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1996, 10: 401~412.
268.Pathak, H., Bhatia, A., Prasad, S., et al. Emission of nitrous oxide from rice wheat system of Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Environ. Monit. Assess, 2002, 77: 163~178.
269.Petersen, S.O., Regina, K., P?linger, A., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from organic and conventional crop rotations in five European countries. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2006, 112: 200~206.
270.Petersen, S.O., Schj?nning, P., Thomsen, I.K., et al. Nitrous oxide evolution from structurally intact soil as influenced by tillage and soil water content. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2008, 40: 967~977.
271.Platt, U., Allen, W., Lowe, D. Hemispheric average Cl atom concentration from 13C/12C ratios in atmospheric methane. HAL - CCSD, 2004.
272.Prather, M., Ehhalt, D., Dentener, F., et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Greenhouse Gases. in "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis", 3rd Assesment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) , 2001.
273.Prinn, R.G., Huang, J., Weiss, R.F., et al. Evidence for variability of atmospheric hydroxyl radicals over the past quarter century. Geophys. Res. Lett, 2005, 32: L07809.
274.Prosser, J.I. Autotrophic nitrification in bacteria. Adv. Microbiol. Physiol, 1989, 30: 125~181.
275.Punshon, S., Moore, R.M. Nitrous oxide production and consumption in a eutrophic coastal
embayment. Marine Chemistry, 2004, 91: 37~51.
276.Qin, Y., Liu, S., Guo, Y., et al. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from organic and conventional rice cropping systems in Southeast China. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2010, 46: 825~834.
277.Qiu, J. China cuts methane emissions from rice fields. Nature, 2009a. doi: 10.1038/news. 2009.833.
278.Qiu, J. Nitrogen fertilizer warning for China. Nature, 2009b. doi:10.1038/news.2009.105
279.R Development Core Team. R Development Core Team R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, 2010.
280.Raghoebarsing, A.A., Pol, A., van de Pas-Schoonen, K.T., et al. A microbial consortium couples anaerobic methane oxidation to denitrification. Nature, 2006, 440: 918~921.
281.Ramaswamy, V., Boucher, O., Haigh, J., et al. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change, 2001.
282.Rath, A.K., Swain, B., Ramakrishnan, B., et al. Influence of fertilizer management and water regime on methane emission from rice fields. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 1999, 76: 99~107.
283.Renner, E.D., Becker, G.E. Production of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide during denitrification by corynebacterium nephridii. J. Bacteriol, 1970, 101: 821~826.
284.Ritchie, G.A., Nicholas, D.J. Identification of the sources of nitrous oxide produced by oxidative and reductive processes in Nitrosomonas europaea. Biochem. J, 1972, 126: 1181~1191.
285.Robertson, L.A., Kuenen, J.G. Physiology of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria. Rogers J.E. and Whitman W.B. (eds), Microbial production and consumption of greenhouse gases: methane, nitrogen oxides, and halomethanes. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, 1991, 189~199.
286.Rochette, P. No-till only increases N2O emissions in poorly-aerated soils. Soil and Tillage Research, 2008, 101: 97~100.
287.Rochette, P., Angers, D.A., Chantigny, M.H., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions respond differently to no-till in a loam and a heavy clay soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2008, 72: 1363~1369.
288.Roslev, P., King, G. Aerobic and Anaerobic Starvation Metabolism in Methanotrophic Bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1995, 61: 1563~1570.
289.Roy, R., Kluber, H.D., Conrad, R. Early initiation of methane production in anoxic rice soil despite the presence of oxidants. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol, 1997, 24: 311~320.
290.Ryden, J.C. N2O exchange between a grassland soil and the atmosphere. Nature, 1981, 292: 235~237.
291.Ryden, J.C. Denitrification loss from a grassland soil in the field receiving different rates of nitrogen as ammonium nitrate. European Journal of Soil Science, 1983, 34: 355~365.
292.Saggar, S., Andrew, R.M., Tate, K.R., et al. Measurements and modelling of nitrous oxideemissions from dairy pastures. in: Currie, L.D., Loganathan, P., (eds.) Proceedings of the workshop on Dairy Farm Soil Management, Occasional Report No.15, Massey University, Palmerston North, 2002, 201~214.
293.SAS Institute Inc. SAS Procedures Guide Version 8. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC, U.S.A. , 1999.
294.SAS Institute Inc. JMP Statistics and Graphics Guide. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC, U.S.A. , 2007.
295.Sass, R.L., Fisher, F.M., Harcombe, P.A., et al. Methane production and emission in a Texas rice field. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1990, 4: 47~68.
296.Sass, R.L., Fisher, F.M., Lewis, S.T., et al. Methane emissions from rice fields: effect of soil properties. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1994, 8: 135~140.
297.Schütz, H., Holzapfel Pschorn, A., Conrad, R., et al. A 3-Year Continuous record on the influence of daytime, season, and fertilizer treatment on methane emission rates from an Italian rice paddy. J. Geophys. Res, 1989, 94: 16405~16416.
298.Schütz, H., Seiler, W., Conrad, R. Influence of soil temperature on methane emission from rice paddy fields. Biogeochemistry, 1990, 11: 77~95.
299.Scheer, C., Wassmann, R., Kienzler, K., et al. Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized, irrigated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in the Aral Sea Basin, Uzbekistan: Influence of nitrogen applications and irrigation practices. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2008, 40: 290~301.
300.Schmidt, I., van Spanning, R.J.M., Jetten, M.S.M. Denitrification and ammonia oxidation by Nitrosomonas europaea wild-type, and NirK- and NorB-deficient mutants. Microbiology, 2004, 150: 4107~4114.
301.Schnell, S., King, G.M. Mechanistic analysis of ammonium inhibition of atmospheric methane consumption in forest soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1994, 60: 3514~3521.
302.Seshadri, S. Methane emission, rice production and food security. Current Science, 2007 93: 1346~1347.
303.Shang, Q., Yang, X., Gao, C., et al. Net annual global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensity in Chinese double rice-cropping systems: a 3-year field measurement in long-term fertilizer experiments. Global Change Biology, 2011, 17(6): 2196~2210.
304.Shannon, R.D., White, J.R. A three-year study of controls on methane emissions from two Michigan peatlands. Biogeochemistry, 1994, 27: 35~60.
305.Shao, K., Li, Z. Effect of rice cultivars and fertilizer management on methane emission in a rice paddy in Beijing. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 139~146.
306.Silver, W.L., Scatena, F.N., Johnson, A.H., et al. Nutrient availability in a montane wet tropical forest: Spatial patterns and methodological considerations. Plant and Soil, 1994, 164: 129~145.
307.Simpson, I.J., Chen, T.Y., Blake, D.R., et al. Implications of the recent fluctuations in thegrowth rate of tropospheric methane. Geophys. Res. Lett, 2002, 29: 1479.
308.Singh, S., Kumar, S., Jain, M.C. Methane emission from two Indian soils planted with different rice cultivars. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1997, 25: 285~289.
309.Singh, S., Singh, J.S., Kashyap, A.K. Methane flux from irrigated rice fields in relation to crop growth and N-fertilization. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1999, 31: 1219~1228.
310.Singurindy, O., Molodovskaya, M., Richards, B.K., Steenhuis, T.S. Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under corn (Zea mays L.). Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2009, 132: 74~81.
311.Six, J., Stephen, M.O., breidt, F.J., et al. The potential to mitigate global warming with no-tillage management is only realized when practised in the long term. Global Change Biology, 2004, 10: 155~160.
312.Slemr, F., Conrad, R., Seiler, W. Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized and unfertilized soils in a subtropical region (Andalusia, Spain). Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 1984, 1: 159~169.
313.Smith, C.J., Brandon, M., Jr, W.H.P. Nitrous oxide emission following urea-N fertilization of wetland rice. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1982, 28: 161~171.
314.Smith, C.J., Wright, M.F., Patrick, W.H., Jr. The Effect of Soil Redox Potential and pH on the Reduction and Production of Nitrous Oxide. J Environ Qual, 1983, 12: 186~188.
315.Smith, K.A. Greenhouse gas fluxes between land surfaces and the atmosphere. Progress in Physical Geography, 1990, 14: 349~372.
316.Smith, K.A., Thomson, P.E., Clayton, H., et al. Effects of temperature, water content and nitrogen fertilisation on emissions of nitrous oxide by soils. Atmospheric Environment, 1998, 32: 3301~3309.
317.Smith, M.S. Dissimilatory reduction of NO2- to NH4+ and N2O by a soil Citrobacter sp. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1982, 43: 854~860.
318.Smith, M.S., Tiedje, J.M. Phases of denitrification following oxygen depletion in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1979, 11: 261~267.
319.Smith, P., D, Martino, Cai, D., et al. Agriculture. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007a.
320.Smith, P., Martino, D., Cai, Z., et al. Policy and technological constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2007b, 118: 6~28.
321.Smith, P., Martino, D., Cai, Z., et al. Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2008, 363: 789~813.
322.Smith, S.J., Wigley, T.M.L. Global Warming Potentials: 2. Accuracy. Climatic Change, 2000, 44: 459~469.
323.Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L., et al. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2009, 133: 247~266.
324.Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., et al. Climate change 2007: the physical science basis, contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007.
325.Steel, R.G., Torrie, J.H. Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometrical approach. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill (New York) , 1980, 663 pp.
326.Stevens, R.J., Laughlin, R.J., Malone, J.P. Soil pH affects the processes reducing nitrate to nitrous oxide and di-nitrogen. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1998, 30: 1119~1126.
327.Sundh, I., Mikkel, C., Nilsson, M., et al. Potential aerobic methane oxidation in a Sphagnum-dominated peatland--Controlling factors and relation to methane emission. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1995, 27: 829~837.
328.Takai, Y., Kamura, T. Microbial metabolism in reduction process of paddy soils (Part 1). Soil Plant Food, 1956, 2: 63~66.
329.Terry, R., Tate, R., Duxbury, J. Nitrous oxide emissions from drained, cultivated organic soils of South Florida. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 1981, 31: 1173~1176.
330.Thauer, R.K., Shima, S. Methane as Fuel for Anaerobic Microorganisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2008, 1125: 158~170.
331.TheMerckIndex. The Merck Index of chemicals and drugs. 7th ed., Stecher, E G. (ed.), Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, N.J, 1960, 1639 pp.
332.Thiele, J.H., Zeikus, J.G. Control of Interspecies Electron Flow during Anaerobic Digestion: Significance of Formate Transfer versus Hydrogen Transfer during Syntrophic Methanogenesis in Flocs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1988, 54: 20~29.
333.Thomsen, J.K., Geest, T., Cox, R.P. Mass Spectrometric Studies of the Effect of pH on the Accumulation of Intermediates in Denitrification by Paracoccus denitrificans. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 1994, 60: 536~541.
334.Thornton, F.C., Bock, B.R., Tyler, D.D. Soil emissions of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide from injected anhydrous ammonium and urea. Journal Name: Journal of Environmental Quality; Journal Volume: 25; Journal Issue: 6; Other Information: PBD: Nov-Dec 1996, Medium: X; Size: pp. 1378~1384.
335.Tiedje, J.M. Denitrifiers. In: Weaver, R.W., Angel, J.S., Bottomley, P.S. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Microbiological and Biochemical Properties. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, 1994, 245~267.
336.Tim, H., Jonathan, P., Kevin, B. Target: Intensity. An Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Intensity Targets, 2006.
337.Toma, Y., Hatano, R. Effect of crop residue C:N ratio on N2O emissions from Gray Lowland soil in Mikasa, Hokkaido, Japan. Soil Science & Plant Nutrition, 2007, 53: 198~205.
338.Toma, Y., Kimura, S.D., Hirose, Y., et al. Variation in the emission factor of N2O derived from chemical nitrogen fertilizer and organic matter: A case study of onion fields in Mikasa, Hokkaido, Japan. Soil Science & Plant Nutrition, 2007, 53: 692~703.
339.Topp, E., Hanson, R.S. Metabolism of radiatively important trace gases by methane-oxidizing bacteria. In: J.E Rogers and W.B Whitman, Editors, Microbial Production and Consumption of Green House Gases: Methane, Nitrogen Oxydes and Halomethanes, American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, 1991, 71~90.
340.Topp, E., Pattey, E. Soils as sources and sinks for atmospheric methane. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 1997, 77: 167~178.
341.Trujillo-Tapia, N., Cruz Mondragón, C., Vásquez-Murrieta, M.S., et al. Inorganic N dynamics and N2O production from tannery effluents irrigated soil under different water regimes and fertilizer application rates: A laboratory study. Applied Soil Ecology, 2008, 38: 279~288.
342.Tyler, S.C., Bilek, R.S., Sass, R.L., et al. Methane oxidation and pathways of production in a texas paddy field deduced from measurements of flux,δl3C, andδD of CH4. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1997, 11: 323~348.
343.Ugalde, D., Brungs, A., Kaebernick, M., et al. Implications of climate change for tillage practice in Australia. Soil and Tillage Research, 2007, 97: 318~330.
344.van der Gon, H.A.C.D., Neue, H.U. Influence of organic matter incorporation on the methane emission from a wetland rice field. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1995, 9: 11~22.
345.van Hulzen, J.B., Segers, R., van Bodegom, P.M., et al. Temperature effects on soil methane production: an explanation for observed variability. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1999, 31: 1919~1929.
346.Vanlauwe, B., Wendt, J., Diels, J. Combined application of organic matter and fertiliser. In: Sustaining soil fertility in West Africa (eds G. Tian, F. Ishida & J.D.H. Keatinge). Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, 2001, 247~279.
347.Velthof, G., Oenema, O. Nitrous oxide fluxes from grassland in the Netherlands: II. Effects of soil type, nitrogen fertilizer application and grazing. European Journal of Soil Science, 1995, 46: 541~549.
348.Venterea, R.T., Rolston, D.E. Mechanisms and kinetics of nitric and nitrous oxide production during nitrification in agricultural soil. Global Change Biology, 2000, 6: 303~316.
349.Vinten, A.J.A., Ball, B.C., O'Sullivan, M.F., et al. The effects of cultivation method, fertilizer input and previous sward type on organic C and N storage and gaseous losses under spring and winter barley following long-term leys. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 2002, 139: 231~243.
350.Wachinger, G., Fiedler, S., Zepp, K., et al. Variability of soil methane production on the micro-scale: spatial association with hot spots of organic material and Archaeal populations. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2000, 32: 1121~1130.
351.Wagner-Riddle, C., Furon, A., McLaughlin, N.L., et al. Intensive measurement of nitrousoxide emissions from a corn–soybean–wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years. Global Change Biology, 2007, 13: 1722~1736.
352.Wang, B., Neue, H.U., Samonte, H.P. Effect of cultivar difference (`IR72', `IR65598' and `Dular') on methane emission. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 1997, 62: 31~40.
353.Wang, F.L., Bettany, J.R. Methane emission from a usually well-drained prairie soil after snowmelt and precipitation. Can. J. Soil Sci, 1995, 75: 239~241.
354.Wang, M., Li, J. CH4 emission and oxidation in Chinese rice paddies. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2002, 64: 43~55.
355.Wang, M., Shangguan, X. CH4 emissions from various rice fields in P. R. China. Theor Appl Climatol, 1996, 55: 129~138.
356.Wang, Z., Delaune, R.D., Lindau, C.W., et al. Methane production from anaerobic soil amended with rice straw and nitrogen fertilizers. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1992, 33: 115~121.
357.Wang, Z.P., DeLaune, R.D., Patrick, W.H., Jr., et al. Soil Redox and pH Effects on Methane Production in a Flooded Rice Soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1993, 57: 382~385.
358.Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., Alberto, M.C.R., et al. Fluxes and pools of methane in wetland rice soils with varying organic inputs. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1996, 42: 163~173.
359.Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., Lantin, R.S., et al. Characterization of Methane Emissions from Rice Fields in Asia. II. Differences among Irrigated, Rainfed, and Deepwater Rice. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2000, 58: 13~22.
360.Weier, K.L., Doran, J.W., Power, J.F., et al. Denitrification and the dinitrogen/nitrous oxide ratio as affected by soil water, available carbon, and nitrate. Soil Sci Soc Am. J, 1993, 57: 66~72.
361.W?odarczyk, T., Stepniewski, W., Brzezinska, M. Nitrous oxide production and consumption in Calcaric Regosols as related to soil redox and texture. International Agrophysics, 2005, 19: 263~271.
362.WMO. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002. Global Ozone research and monitoring project report No. 47. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 2003, 498 pp.
363.Woese, C.R., Magrum, L.J., Fox, G.E. Archaebacteria. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 1978, 11: 245~252.
364.Xiong, Z.Q., Xing, G.X., Tsuruta, H., et al. Measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from two rice-based cropping systems in China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2002, 64: 125~133.
365.Xiong, Z.Q., Xing, G.X., Zhu, Z.L. Nitrous oxide and methane emissions as affected by water, soil and nitrogen. Pedosphere, 2007, 17: 146~155.
366.Xu, B., Wang, H., Zheng, H., et al. Nitrous oxide and methane emissions during rice growth and through rice plants: effect of dicyandiamide and hydroquinone. Biology and Fertility ofSoils, 2002a, 36: 53~58.
367.Xu, X., Boeckx, P., Van Cleemput, O., et al. Urease and nitrification inhibitors to reduce emissions of CH4 and N2O in rice production. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 2002b, 64: 203~211.
368.Yagi, K., Chairoj, P., Tsuruta, H., et al. Methane emission from rice paddy fields in the central plain of Thailand. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1994, 40: 29~37.
369.Yagi, K., Kumagai, K., Tsuruta, H., et al. Emission, production, and oxidation of methane in a Japanese rice paddy field. In R. Lal et al. (ed.) Soil management and greenhouse effect. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, 1995, 231~243.
370.Yagi, K., Minami, K. Effect of organic matter application on methane emission from some Japanese paddy fields. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 1990, 36: 599~610.
371.Yagi, K., Tsuruta, H., Kanda, K.I., et al. Effect of water management on methane emission from a Japanese rice paddy field: Automated methane monitoring. Global Biogeochem. Cycles., 1996, 10: 255~267.
372.Yagi, K., Tsuruta, H., Minami, K. Possible options for mitigating methane emission from rice cultivation. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 1997, 49: 213~220.
373.Yagi, K., Tsuruta, H., Minami, K., et al. Methane emission from Japanese and Thai paddy fields. In: Minami K, Mosier A & Sass R (eds), CH4 and N2O Global Emissions and Controls from Rice Fields and Other Agriculture and Industrial Sources, NIAES Series, 1992, 2: 41~54.
374.Yamane, I., Sato, K. Decomposition of plant constituents and gas formation in flooded soil Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1963, 9: 28~31.
375.Yamane, I., Sato, K. Decomposition of glucose and gas formation in flooded soil. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 1964, 10: 127~133.
376.Yamulki, S., Jarvis, S. Short-term effects of tillage and compaction on nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, methane and carbon dioxide fluxes from grassland. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2002, 36: 224~231.
377.Yamulki, S., Harrison, R.M., Goulding, K.W.T., et al. N2O, NO and NO2 fluxes from a grassland: Effect of soil pH. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1997, 29: 1199~1208.
378.Yan, X., Du, L., Shi, S., et al. Nitrous oxide emission from wetland rice soil as affected by the application of controlled-availability fertilizers and mid-season aeration. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2000a, 32: 60~66.
379.Yan, X., Kazuyuki, Y., Hiroko, A., et al. Statistical analysis of the major variables controlling methane emission from rice fields. Global Change Biology, 2005, 11: 1131~1141.
380.Yan, X., Shi, S., Du, L., et al. Pathways of N2O emission from rice paddy soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2000b, 32: 437~440.
381.Yano, Y., Mcdowell, W.H., Kinner, N.E. Quantification of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in soil solution with flow-through bioreactors. Soil Science Society of America, 1998, 62: 1556~1564. 124
382.Yao, H., Conrad, R. Thermodynamics of methane production in different rice paddy soils from China, the Philippines and Italy. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 1999, 31: 463~473.
383.Yao, H., Conrad, R., Wassmann, R., et al. Effect of soil characteristics on sequential reduction and methane production in sixteen rice paddy soils from China, the Philippines, and Italy. Biogeochemistry, 1999, 47: 267~293.
384.Yoshida, T. Microbial metabolism in rice soils. In: Soils and Rice. Int. Rice Res Inst, Manila, Philippines, 1978, 445~463.
385.Yoshinari, T. Emissions of N2O from various environments-the use of stable isotope composition of N2O as a tracer for the studies of N2O biogeochemical cycling. In Denitrification in Soil and Sediment (Revsbech, N. P. & S?rensen, J., eds). Plenum Press, New York, 1990, 129~150.
386.Yu, K., Wang, Z., Vermoesen, A., et al. Nitrous oxide and methane emissions from different soil suspensions: effect of soil redox status. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2001, 34: 25~30.
387.Yu, K., Patrick, W.H., Jr. Redox range with minimum nitrous oxide and methane production in a rice soil under different pH. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2003, 67: 1952~1958.
388.Yu, K.W., Wang, Z.P., Chen, G.X. Nitrous oxide and methane transport through rice plants. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 1997, 24: 341~343.
389.Zeng, R.J., Lemaire, R., Yuan, Z., et al. Simultaneous nitrification, denitrification, and phosphorus removal in a lab-scale sequencing batch reactor. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 2003, 84: 170~178.
390.Zhang, X., Hui, X., Guanxiong, C. Effects of soil moisture and temperature on CH4 oxidation and N2O emission of forest soil. Journal of Forestry Research, 2000, 11: 203~206.
391.Zheng, X., Wang, M., Wang, Y., et al. Impacts of soil moisture on nitrous oxide emission from croplands: a case study on the rice-based agro-ecosystem in Southeast China. Chemosphere - Global Change Science, 2000, 2 207~224.
392.Zheng, X.H., Wang, M.X., Wang, Y.S. Comparison of manual and automatic methods for measurement of methane emission from rice paddy fields. Advances in atmospheric sciences, 1998, 15: 569~579.
393.Zou, J., Huang, Y., Jiang, J., et al. A 3-year field measurement of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from rice paddies in China: Effects of water regime, crop residue, and fertilizer application. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2005, 19: GB2021.