摘要
在盎格鲁-撒克逊研究领域,对于时间问题的研究最早可以追溯到1895年。这一年,学者塔珀(Frederick Tupper)详细考证了盎格鲁-撒克逊时期对于时间的划分,以及这种划分对于神职人员的意义。但在塔珀之后,似乎没有更多学者对这个问题做深入的研究。这种情况只有到了20世纪80年代才发生了根本性的改变,时间问题也重新回到了盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者的批评视野。在重新编写古英语词典的学术背景之下,一些知名的盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者,如卡梅隆(Angus Cameron)、巴特利(Janet Bately)、斯特赖特(Victor L. Strite)、索尔(Hans Sauer),开始研究古英语的时间词汇,分析具体古英语文本中的时间观念。与此同时,另外一些盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者开始关注时间问题的历史语境,如鲍斯查茨(Paul C. Bauschatz Bauschatz)把时间问题的讨论置于整个早期日耳曼的文化传统,分析早期日耳曼文化对于时间观念的独特认识,而戈登(Malcolm Godden)则是讨论古英语布道文中的时间、千禧年(millennium)以及历史叙述的问题。然而综观盎格鲁-撒克逊学术传统中的时间研究,不难发现,对于时间问题的重视程度与时间问题的重要性并不成正比。而认知语言学家对于时间问题的关注则为盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间研究提供了一个新的理论视角。
虽然戈登和鲍斯查茨等一些盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者也强调了时间的重要性,但是他们并没有认为时间是盎格鲁-撒克逊文化的基本问题,也没有提出时间观念可以影响其它观念的论断。而这一点却是认知语言学家所强调的。首先,以莱考夫(George Lakoff),品克(Steven Pinker)以及埃文斯(Vyvyan Evans)为代表的认知语言学家强调了时间观念在理解人类观念体系中的基础地位。这一点对于盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间研究非常重要。其次,以研究时间认知出名的埃文斯提出了研究时间问题两个层面的观念结构(conceptual structure):词汇层面(lexical concepts)以及认知模型层面(cognitive models)。根据埃文斯的论述,在第一个层面,时间与八种不同的词汇意义联系在一起；而在第二个层面,时间通常被概念化为空间和运动(space and motion)的观念。埃文斯对于时间观念的分析为我们研究盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间问题提供了一个可行的框架。最后,以莱考夫和品克为代表的认知语言学家特别强调时间观念的隐喻性,并专门提出概念隐喻理论(conceptual metaphor theory)来分析人类观念中的隐喻现象。对于时间观念的隐喻性的理解无疑拓宽了时间观念的分析范围。
基于上述认知语言学的基本概念和假设,论文尝试利用古英语文本中的时间词汇、隐喻、风格以及叙述模式来分析时间观念三个层面的问题。第一个层面是将来观念(the concept of the future)。将来观念是盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下最显著的一个词汇观念。第二个层面是时间流动观念(the concept of time flow)。通过分析线性(linearity)和循环性(cyclicity)等问题突出时间观念第二个层面的问题。此外,论文还重点分析永恒观念(the concept of eternity)。永恒观念是基于对将来和时间流动的理解之上,因而可以视为时间观念第三个层面的问题,也是最复杂的问题。对于这时间观念三个层面问题的讨论可以彰显在盎格鲁-撤克逊语境下时间观念的复杂性,透过盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的冲突,可以从一个微观的角度观察盎格鲁-撒克逊时期思想与观念的冲突和演变。
论文第一章首先论述时间观念在人类思想中的重要性,从学理层面确立论文研究的价值；接着对盎格鲁-撒克逊研究领域的时间研究进行梳理和总结,将论文的研究置于整个盎格鲁-撒克逊研究的传统之中,从研究史的角度确立论文研究的意义；最后,论文还从理论基础和研究方法层面论证论文研究的必要性。
论文第二章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人如何看待将来观念。作为早期日耳曼文化与中世纪基督教文明冲突的一个焦点,将来的观念是观察盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的一个重要参数。在基督教的观念体系中,将来观念带有强烈的末世论色彩,而在只对现在和过去做二元区分的早期日耳曼文化中,将来观念是空缺的。面对着两种截然不同的将来观,盎格鲁-撒克逊人既不是采取非此即彼的策略,也不是将二者相加,而是力图在二者间寻找一个平衡点,化解观念冲突的内在张力。《贝奥武甫》诗人(the Beowulf-poet)似乎是在跌宕起伏的叙述融入了末世论的判断,无法摆脱命运(wyrd)束缚的日耳曼英雄在《贝奥武甫》诗人眼里也成了上帝的殉道者。作为一国之君,阿尔弗雷德国王(King Alfred)的应对策略与《贝奥武甫》诗人存在着差异,他把过去的辉煌视为英格兰文化复兴的一个参照点,因而在阿尔弗雷德国王视域里的将来是一种对于过去的乡愁,而非对末世的期待。这种文化上的乡愁并非阿尔弗雷德国王所独有,古英语诗歌《狄奥尔》(Deor)和《废墟》(The Ruin)更是把早期日耳曼文化中的现在与过去的二元区分表现得淋漓尽致,以过去为参照,反观现在,实则是对将来的一种期待。作为盎格鲁-撒克逊时期的一名神学家兼历史学家,比德(Bede)把《创世纪》中上帝创世的七天解读为世界时间的六纪(the Six Ages of the World),第七纪则是时间的终止,并且把将来界定为这其中的第七纪(The Seventh Age),且把这种六纪的时间观念融入他对历史的叙述当中,因而比德的将来观带有强烈的末世论色彩。与之形成对照的则是记录《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》(The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)的僧侣们,他们表面上借用基督教的时间体系来组织他们的历史叙述,似乎是把历史的进程纳入基督教的时间体系,但事实上则是借助神权确定王权的正当性,而将来观念更多体现为对一个世俗意义上的国家意识的一种追求。因此,本章认为盎格鲁-撒克逊人并没有一种统一的将来观,但他们对将来的理解却是游离于对过去的乡愁和对末世的期待之间。
论文第三章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间流动观念(the concept of time flow).时间流动涉及时间的动态变化,关注时间如何从一个状态演变为另一个状态,因而时间流动观念是描绘时间观念的另外一个重要维度。作为时间流动观念的特殊形式,线性或是循环不仅是对于时间观念的空间化表述,而且将时间的这个线性或循环的特征融入到对历史进程的一种判断,这体现了时间观念在人类观念系统中的重要地位,对人类认识历史的发展进程起到了一个非常重要的作用。对时间的线性或循环判断,不仅关涉时间问题,还涉及历史发展的进程问题。如果说将来观念是时间连续体(continuum)中的一个点,那么线性或是循环则是关注时间连续体中两个点之间的关系。在中世纪早期的基督教观念体系中,时间始于创世(the Creation),终结于末日审判(the Last Judgement),因而时间是线性的；而在早期日耳曼观念体系中,现在与过去的二元区分则衍生出现在与过去的不断更替,因而时间是循环的。面对这样的观念冲突,盎格鲁-撒克逊人的应对是比较谨慎的。《英吉利教会史》和《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》基本上是以一种线性的时间观念去叙述历史的发展,但二者对于这种线性历史中体现出的发展趋势的判断是明显不同的,前者基本上是一部拯救史(salvation history),而后者则是把线性的发展界定为世俗社会的发展与进步。《古斯拉克A》(Guthlac A)是一部独具盎格鲁-撒克逊特色的圣徒史,这里的线性历史体现为古斯拉克由普通人变为圣徒的过程的单向性和线性。但是盎格鲁-撒克逊人眼中的基督教历史并非都是呈现这种线性和单向的特征,当《基督Ⅲ》(Christ III)的作者呈现最后的末日审判情景时,便打破时间的线性推进,突出末日审判前的反复和曲折。对于时间的线性或是循环特征处理最为复杂的当数《贝奥武甫》诗人,一方面,他把早期的日耳曼部落的历史描绘为一部永无了结的仇恨史(the never-ending feud),另一方面,他又把贝奥武甫描绘为一位能终结这样循环历史的英雄,因而对于《贝奥武甫》诗人来说,历史既不是循环的仇恨,也不是线性的殉道,而是一种螺旋式的向前发展。因此,从上述分析的盎格鲁-撒克逊时期文本来看,对盎格鲁-撒克逊人而言,基督教的线性时间观念与早期日耳曼的循环时间观念之间并不存在着不可调和的矛盾,而盎格鲁-撒克逊人似乎更乐意去接受用线性的时间观念去述说他们的历史,而历史对于他们而言,也呈现更多的目的性和方向性。对于盎格鲁-撒克逊而言,线性的历史并非都是救赎史,也可以是与循环时间观念共存的另外一种时间流动观念。
论文第四章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人如何看待永恒观念。永恒观念是时间观念中最为复杂的问题,不仅关涉时间的将来和时间的空间维度,还关涉人与上帝之间的关系,时间的起源,时间的结束等诸多问题。因此,永恒问题也可以视为关于时间的一个综合问题。这一章分析永恒概念的中世纪语境,区分永恒概念的两个维度：“无限性”(everlastingness)和“无时性”(timelessness),认为前者代表永恒的世俗意义(secular meaning),而后者则代表永恒的宗教意义(sacred meaning)。就早期日耳曼文化而言,他们并不缺乏“无限性”的永恒观念,但他们缺少的是上帝让时间停止,时间终结的“无时性”的永恒观念,这一点可以从拉丁语词汇"ceternalis"和古英语词汇"ecelice"在语义场及词源上的差异得到验证,古英语词汇"ecelice"强调的是时间在空间上的无限延伸,因而是“无限性”的永恒。于是,盎格鲁-撒克逊人面临的问题是如何去接受基督教中以上帝为中心的“无时性”的永恒观念。这一章认为,盎格鲁-撒克逊人并不是利用“无限性”的永恒观念去同化“无时性”的永恒观念,而是从他们自身关于人生苦短的特殊经历入手,突出他们对于时间的无法掌控,以此来反衬上帝是时间的主宰者。以一种世俗的经历去理解基督教的永恒观,并不是要否定基督教永恒观的神圣性,而是突出永恒观念的神圣性背后所体现出来的救赎意义。从这种意义上来看,盎格鲁-撒克逊人对于永恒的理解已经超越一种纯粹的时间观念,而上升为他们对命运的一种思考,对人死后生活的一种期待,有着强烈的现实诉求。
论文的结论部分简要总结了前面的论点,综合分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的多层面意义,认为盎格鲁-撒克逊人的时间观念是一个复杂的综合体,是早期日耳曼时间观念与中世纪基督教时间观念相互交融后的一种特殊产物。这二者之间的张力与互动塑造了盎格鲁-撒克逊人基督教化的日耳曼时间观念,或是日耳曼化的基督教时间观念。时间是一个极具辐射性的单位思想("unit-idea"),透过时间观念,可以洞见盎格鲁-撤克逊人对于过去的乡愁,对于末世的期待,对于历史的判断,对于国家意识的追求,对于命运的思考等等。
Though it has not received explicit critical attention in the previous Anglo-Saxon scholarship, the issue of how time is perceived in Anglo-Saxon literature and culture has a long critical tradition. This can be dated to1895, when Frederick Tupper examined in detail the Anglo-Saxon division of time and what it meant to the Anglo-Saxon clerk and layman. Yet, there is an academic discontinuity between Tupper and more recent Anglo-Saxonists:only in1980s has the issue of time come to the critical focus again. Anglo-Saxonists such as Angus Cameron, Janet Bately, Victor L. Strite and Hans Sauer either investigated some time words in Old English or examined the concept of time in individual Old English texts in the academic context of recompiling a new Old English dictionary, the important Dictionary of Old English. In1982, Paul C. Bauschatz examined early Germanic traditions in the perception of time, and in2003, Malcolm Godden dealt with time, millennium and history with his focus primarily on Old English homilies. However, much remains to be investigated. In particular, the assumptions and concepts from cognitive linguistics offer an opportunity to reconsider the issue of time in the Anglo-Saxon context, supplying a new way to bring together and address in more fundamental terms of "outlook" the ideas of time in Anglo-Saxon literature and culture.
For although Anglo-Saxonists such as Godden and Bauschatz noticed the importance of time in interpreting Anglo-Saxon culture, they did not go to the extent of showing how time was fundamental and influenced the perceptions of many other concepts. Crucial means for doing both things are available from cognitive linguists such as George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, Steven Pinker and Vyvyan Evans, who have emphasised the fundamental role of time in understanding our conceptual system. Morever, Evans, most notable for study of temporal cognition, observed two levels of conceptual structure for time:lexical concepts and cognitive models for time. According to Evans, at the first level, time is usually related to eight distinct lexical concepts, while at the second level, time is conceptualised in terms of space and motion. Evans's elaboration of the two levels of conceptual structure provides a feasible framework for the discussion of time in Anglo-Saxon materials. Yet we need to evaluate whether the eight lexical concepts are equally important, or if some concepts are more prominent than others in the Anglo-Saxon context. Finally, cognitive linguists such as Lakoff and Pinker highlighted the metaphorical nature of time and proposed the conceptual metaphor theory to explain the complexity of time.
This dissertation attempts to study the concepts of time in Old English literature on the basis of Evans's two levels of conceptual structure, through a series of analyses of time words, metaphors, styles, and narrative modes in various Old English texts. At the first level, this dissertation deals with the concept of the future, the most prominent lexical concept in the Anglo-Saxon context. At the second level, it examines the conceptualisation of time in terms of spatial relations and motion such as linearity and cyclicity. Beyond these two levels mentioned by Evans, there is a third level in the Anglo-Saxon context, namely the concept of eternity, which is closed related to the concepts of the future and time flow. An examination of the three levels of time could help to highlight time as a many-sided and widely significant concept, allowing us to penetrate the complexities concerning the development and evolution of various ideas and thought in Anglo-Saxon England.
This dissertation is organized to test this approach and unfold its implications. Chapter1begins with a discussion of the major position of time in human thought, then gives a retrospective review of the studies on time in the foregoing Anglo-Saxon scholarship, and finally elaborates on the theoretical foundations and methodologies of this dissertation. The following chapters assess the kinds of temporality described above. Chapter2deals with the concept of the future. When the eschatological future in early medieval Christianity encounters the early Germanic culture which simply views the binary division between the past and the present, the concept of the future becomes significant in the discussion of the Anglo-Saxon concepts of time and lies at the very centre of the conflict and assimilation of these two conceptual systems. Rather than taking an either-or strategy, Anglo-Saxon authors made efforts to strike a balance and to resolve the inner tension concerning the concept of the future in these two conceptual systems. The Beowulf-poet integrated the eschatological future in his narration and described Beowulf as both a Germanic hero who can not escape the wyrd and a Christian martyr who sacrifices his life for future happiness. King Alfred viewed the past glory of England as the reference point for his programme to revive learning in England and thus his concept of the future is the nostalgia for the glorious past rather than an expectation for the prophetic future. King Alfred was not alone in his nostalgic attitude towards the glorious past and in the two Old English poems Deor and The Ruin, the poets equated the concept of the future to a nostalgic attitude of returning to the past. In contrast, Bede strictly followed the Christian tradition and defined the future as the Seventh Age of the world within the Christian framework of time reference. In the case of Chronicle, under its seemingly Christian framework, the concept of the future is dominated by the political rhetoric and logic and is associated with the national awareness of having a politically united England. In this sense, we may claim that the Anglo-Saxon concept of the future lingers between the glorious past and the prophetic future. The Anglo-Saxon authors, exemplified by the Beowulf-poet, Bede, King Alfred, the Chronicle-annalists, etc. maintained different stances on this issue, yet their differences are primarily defined by degrees to which they positioned the future in the continuum from the past glory to the prophetic future.
Chapter3examines the concept of time flow. This concept involves the dynamic aspect of the concepts of time and examines how time changes from one state to another. As another dimension of time, it is not only associated with the spatial conceptualisation of time, but also with the development of history. In the traditional discussion of the concept of time flow, the dichotomy between'linear'and'cyclical' has been made to describe how time changes from one state to another. Whether time is perceived as linear or cyclical determines how history is narrated. In the conceptual system of early medieval Christianity, time begins with the Creation and ends with the Last Judgment, and thus time is linear. In the early Germanic culture that views the binary division between the past and the present, time progresses as a constant and cyclical shift between the past and the present. In the confrontation of the linearity and cyclicity of time, the Anglo-Saxon authors adopted different strategies to resolve this conflict of ideas. In the case of HE and Chronicle, though both Bede and the Chronicle-annalists described a linear progression of history, the linearity of time were understood in a different manner:the former interpreted the linearity of history in its highly prophetic and eschatological sense, while the latter saw linearity as a natural continuation of time. In some other cases like Guthlac A and Christ Ⅲ, the linearity of time was slightly adapted to narrate the history of an individual saint:the Guthlac-poet metaphorised the saint Guthlac as a tidfara ("time-traveller"), while the Christ Ⅲ-poet reversed the linearity of time to recount the awesome process of the Last Judgment. In the most complex case of Beowulf, with the integration of the linearity and cyclicity of time, the Beowulf-poet related the never-ending feuds of the Germanic tribes with a spiral perception of history. This chapter concludes that the Anglo-Saxon authors were more apt to employ the framework of linear time to organise their histories with different historical intentionalities.
Chapter4deals with the concept of eternity. The distinction between "everlastingness" and "timelessness" is of great importance:the former indicates the secularity of eternity, while the latter concerns the sacredness of eternity. First, with a comparison between the Latin word ceternalis and its Old English translation ecelice, it concludes that the time words for eternity in Old English are more concerned with the secular meaning. Then, it examines the concept of eternity in Dream and the eagan bryhtm metaphor in HE, and explains why the Dream-poet focused on the secularity of eternity. Finally, with its focus on The Phoenix and The Wanderer, it demonstrates that the Anglo-Saxon transitory experience contributes to their understanding of the concept of eternity as the fulfilment of worldly aspiration. The early Germanic concept of 'everlasting' eternity and the Anglo-Saxon secular experience of transience function as the receptive background for the Christian concept of 'timeless' eternity to become adopted and assimilated by the Anglo-Saxon authors in their writings.
Drawing together the conclusions of the preceding chapters, the concluding chapter concludes that the Anglo-Saxon concepts of time are the special combination of the two cultural strains in Anglo-Saxon England. The tension and interaction between these two strains have formulated the Germanised Christian concepts of time or the Christianised Germanic concepts of time. The concepts of time, as has been demonstrated, are embedded in nostalgia for the past, the expectation of the end of the world, the judgment of history, the aspiration for national identity, and the contemplation of fate.
引文
1 The Modern English version is translated by Outler, Augustine Confessions and Enchiridion,263. We have to distinguish this early sixth-century Augustine from Augustine of Canterbury, sent to England in the late sixth century to convert the Anglo-Saxon kings in Bede's HE.
2 My interest in the concepts of time in Old English literature takes its origin from the Call of Papers of Seventh Annual ASSC Graduate Student Conference, "Crises of Categorization", which suggests "Anglo-Saxon conceptions of time" as the potential area of investigation. See the CFP of this conference which could be accessed at the ASSC website, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/assc.
3 Instead of using the general category "literature", Anglo-Saxonists use more specific terms such as "chronicles", "homilies", "hagiographies", "epic poetry", "elegies" to describe different types of Old English writings. Since my dissertation includes various types of Old English writings in the discussion, I use literature as a convenient term. In the scholarly tradition, the term "literature" is also used as a convenient term to refer to various kinds of writings or texts. For instance, in three histories of Old English literature, A History of Old English Literature, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Old English Literature A Short Introduction, various genres of Old English writings are treated within the broad category of "literature."
4 See HE. Book 1, Chapter 13. The translation of Old English texts is mine unless indicated otherwise. My translation of Old English texts owes greatly to various dictionaries and editions of Old English, i.e. DOE, ASD, OED and OCOEP.
5 The issues of date, authorship, and genre are very complex in Old English literature. Anglo-Saxonists, so far, have not reached an agreement, and they have adopted different frameworks to narrate the history of Old English literature. See, Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature, Godden and Lapidge, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Though Fulk and Cain observe, "nearly all verse in Old English is anonymous... authorship is a concept foreign...the expression is not one of authorship but of performative primacy" in A History of Old English Literature, we still use the word "author" throughout the dissertation, and define it as an Anglo-Saxon, a group of Anglo-Saxons, or even several generations of the Anglo-Saxons who were mainly responsible for or contributed to the composition of particular Old English texts. We prefer "author" to "scop", "poet" or "writer" because "author" is much more neutral in its meaning to avoid the awkward situation when we use "scop" but we cannot say King Alfred is a scop.
6 The first covers the studies before 1972; the second is an annually published bibliography by ASE from 1971 onwards; the third contains annual bibliographies published by the OEN from 1973 onwards and is accessible online. A Bibliography of Publications on Old English Literature to the End of 1972 cites almost every relevant source from the invention of printing to the end of 1972, thus, is the most comprehensive bibliographical tool of Anglo-Saxon studies for its records of materials before 1972.
7 See Greenfield and Robison. A Bibliography of Publications on Old English Literature to the End of 1972,62-66. The only entry recorded is "Anglo-Saxon daeg-mael" by Frederick Tupper on p.62.
8 The OEN Bibliography is accessible online at http://www.oenewsletter.org/OENDB/index.php. The database currently contains the annual bibliographies from 1973 to 2006-over 21,000 entries-with new items added annually. The entries can be searched by the title keywords. Results are found by searching the Bibliography with "time" as the keyword in the title.
9 The ASE Bibliography is accessible online by subscription. The figure is calculated with the search in a PDF file.
10 See Tupper, "Anglo-Saxon Daeg-masl."
11 Ibid.,1.
12 Ibid.,2.
13 The exception is Grimm, whose Teutonic Mythology in four volumes published in German in 1844 includes several chapters dealing with the issue of time and world in the Teutonic mythology. This book would be mentioned later together with Bauschatz's The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture.
14 Cameron envisions the possibility of recompiling a dictionary of Old English to replace ASD in 1969 and the project of DOE in the same year. See Bammesberger, Problems of Old English Lexicography:Studies in Memory of Angus Cameron,9-10.
15 See Camerson, Old English Word Studies A Preliminary Author and Word Index.
16 Ibid., ⅶ.
17 See Bately, "Time and the Passing of Time in 'The Wanderer' and Related OE Texts."
18 See Bately, "On Some Words for Time in Old English Literature."
19 See Stanley. "Studies in the Prosaic Vocabulary of Old English Verse,"'385. Qtd. in Bately, "On Some Words for Time in Old English Literature," 47.
20 The predecessors of A Microfiche Concordance to Old English are CB and CASPR. The former lists "all occurrences of every word in Old English except about 200 common words." See Venezky and Healey, A Microfiche Concordance to Old English. A Microfiche Concordance to Old English is later digitalized as DOEC.
21 See Strite. "Semantic-Field Analysis for Old English Poetry:Using Computers and Semantic Features to Find Meaning" and Old English Semantic-Field Studies.
22 See Strite, Old English Semantic-Field Studies,149-150.
23 Roberts. A Thesaurus of Old English. TOE has both print and online editions. For the online edition, see the TOE's webpage which is accessible for free at http://libra.englang.arts.gla.ac.uk/oethesaurus/.
24 The exceptions are ASD which represents the highest achievement in the 19th century and DOE which is now still in progress. TOE is now incorporated into HTE.
25 See Roberts, A Thesaurus of Old English, xv, xxxvi.
26 Ibid.,301-314.
27 Ibid., xxxii-xxxiii. HTE is the companion of and addition to OED. The former arranges English words conceptually, while the latter arranges them alphabetically. Roberts' TOE is modelled on HTE. In the recent online edition of HTE, the materials in TOE have been incorporated.
28 In The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition, Evans distinguishes between eight senses of time:"The Duration Sense", "The Moment Sense", "The Instance Sense", "The Event Sense", "The Matrix Sense", "The Agentive Sense", "The Measurement-system Sense","Commodity Sense". See pp.107-198 of the book.
29 See Roberts, A Thesaurus of Old English, xxxv-xxxvi.
30 Ibid., xv.
31 In Section 1.3 of this dissertation dealing the "approaches and methodologies", we have a detailed discussion of this point.
32 See Sauer, "Time Words and Time Concepts in Anglo-Saxon Prose:Theodulfi Capitula."
33 In a very strict sense, we should distinguish"time concepts" from "concepts of time", or "time words" from "words of time". To avoid the possible confusion that might be caused by that minor difference, we prefer to use "concepts of time" or "concept of time" instead of "time concepts" or "time concept" throughout the dissertation.
34 Sauer, "Time Words and Time Concepts in Anglo-Saxon Prose:Theodulfi Capitula," 247.
35 Ibid.
3S Ibid.,250.
37 See Grimm, Teutonic Mythology. In Grimm's book, the word "Teutonic" is synonymous with "early Germanic", and both terms have the connotation of referring to the pre-conversion or pagan Germanic world.
38 Ibid., v.
39 Ibid.,790.
40 Ibid.,825.
41 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, ix. The term "early Germanic"
42 Godden, "The Millennium, Time and History for the Anglo-Saxons.
43 Ibid.
44 As regards the limitation of the traditional English philology, Gneuss observed. "English Dhiloloev has unfortunately only too often relied on its own resources and possibilites. That the historical background and cultural background and the findings of palaeographers, art historians and many others have to be borne in mind, seems so obvious an axiom that one is almost embarrased to mention it; yet it is easy to show how. time and again, this principle has been violated." See Gneuss, "The origin of Standard Old English," 66. Though Gneuss's critique of the traditional philology is not due to its inedequacy in dealing with the issue of time, his obervation that we should break the boundary of the traditional philology is insightful. I have no intention to belittle the contribution of the traditional philology, but it should reconsider its role in the age where various approaches have been proposed to deal with a same issue.
45 See Backman, The Worlds of Medieval Europe,2.
46 See Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,107-198.
47 Tupper's dissertation "Anglo-Saxon D(?)g-m(?)l" is a typical example of the investigation focusing on the "measurement of time".
48 See Sauer, "Time Words and Time Concepts in Anglo-Saxon Prose The Theodulfi Capitula."
49 For a list of Old English manuscripts, see Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon.
50 See Strite, Old English Semantic-Field Studies,1.
51 See Howe, "Historicist approaches," 97.
52 This term is used by Crick in his Explorations in Language and Meaning:Towards a Semantic Anthropology.
53 Galloway observes, "With astonishing numbers of reproductions of medieval manuscripts available in microfilm, CD-ROM and, increasingly, the Internet, the reasons not to study the works in their'original'form are disappearing... Such databases democratize one of the most traditionally most exclusive aspects of scholarly research." See Galloway, Medieval Literature and Culture,112.
4 See Baker, "Old English and computing:a guided tour," 192. Baker gives a detailed review of the history in his book.
55 CB, abbreviation of A Concordance to Beowulf by Bessinger, is an alphabetical list of the words that occur in Beowulf with the citations of each word's occurrence.
56 CASPR, abbreviation of A Concordance to the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, is the follow-up of CB and lists all the words that occur in ASPR with their occurrences. Both CB and CASPR are published in print.
57 DOEC consists of at least one copy of surviving Old English text and is searched with a simple word, phrase, or the combination of the two. DOEC is only accessible by subscription online or in CD-ROM. The Center for Medieval Studies at the University of Toronto is undertaking the project of compiling a Dictionary of Old English, and the prerequisite work done is the concordance of the 2,000 surviving Old English texts. The concordance was previously published as A Microfiche Concordance to Old English (1980) and A Microfiche Concordance to Old English:The High-Frequency Words (1985) and is now accessible online by subscription as the Dictionary of Old English Corpus. Both DOE and DOEC changed the way in which Old English is studied. In contrast to CB and CASPR, DOEC is published online and this makes it the most important tool in studying Old English words.
58 In some recently published articles, both DOE and DOEC have been used as powerful tools to analyse special words or phrases in Old English. For instance, Saltzman used DOEC to analyse the distribution offorgytan in the whole corpus in his article "The mind, perception and the reflexivity of forgetting in Alfred's Pastoral Care" which was published in the most recent issue of ASE.
59 Sauer, "Time Words and Time Concepts in Anglo-Saxon Prose The Theodulfi Capitnla."
60 Franklin employs this comparative approach in analysing the reception of a Latin hagiography in Anglo-Saxon England, and her purpose is "reveal the translation's relationship to a singular version of the Latin text" so that both "the derived text" and the source texts could be better understood. While applying this comparative approach, my focus is on the Anglo-Saxon authors'choices of words and why they did so. See Franklin, "The reception of the Latin Life of St Giles in Anglo-Saxon England," 65-67. Translation is an important form of literature in Anglo-Saxon England. In The Culture of Translation in Anglo-Saxon England, Stanton observes "the bilingual culture of the Anglo-Saxons," and argued, "Translation is a productive cultural practice in that it defines an attitude to received authority and sets the terms under which authority can be reproduced and shifted from one institution or social group to another." See pp.1-2 of the book. As regards the issue of time, the Christian interpretations of time work as an authority. By looking at how the Anglo-Saxon authors reproduced this authority, we can go into their own understandings of time. Stanton further claimed, "Anglo-Saxon literary culture was indelibly marked by the very idea of translation, via a strong drive toward interpretation." Accordingly, the idea of translation is important in understanding their concepts of time.
61 For a detailed review of the philological approach in Anglo-Saxon studies, see Donoghue, "Language matters," 60.
62 See Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon, xiv. For a detailed description of the Beowulf Manuscript, see Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon,281-283. Here I have to draw the line between manuscripts before 1066 and those after that with my focus on the former.
63 For a description of the fire, see Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon,281-283. For a
64 See O'Brien O'Keeffe, ed., Reading Old English Texts,89.
65 See Godden and Lapidge, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, ix.
66 For Atherton's discussion, see Atherton, Teach Yourself Old English, vii.
67 See Carroll, Language, Thought, and Reality:Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, vi.
68 See Harbus, Cognitive Approaches to Old English Poetry, vii. Harbus's book was published after the planning of this dissertation. I only came to know this book at the revising stage of my dissertation. I envisoned "cognitive approach" at the very beginning of the dissertation. I planned to apply the key concepts from cognitive science, especially from cognitive linguistics, to the analysis of Old English texts.
69 See Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,3.
70 See Evans and Green, Cognitive Linguistics An Introduction,14-15.
71 See Evans, How We Conceptualise Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,733.
72 See Pinker, The Stuff of Thought:Language as a Window into Human Nature, vii.
73 Ibid.
74 For an overview of the application of the conceptual metaphor theory in literature, see Semino and Steen. "Metaphor in Literature," 232-246.
75 See Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,5.
76 The metaphor in cognitive linguistics is not a word, but a conceptual association expressed in a word or phrase. Thus they use capital letters to indicate a metaphor. For instance, ARGUMENT IS WAR is a metaphor. This convention will be followed in this dissertation.
77 See Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,5.
78 For a detailed discussion of these terms, see Grady, "Metaphor," 190-191.
79 See Lakoff, "The contemporary theory of metaphor," 203.
80 Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,7.
81 Lakoff, "The contemporary theory of metaphor," 203.
82 Their discussions are published as Reading Old English Texts, which is edited by O'Brien O'Keeffe. According to the editor, this book is "the first collection of its kind in the field and is a timely book, given the explosion of interest in the theory, method, and practice of critical reading in recent years." See O'Brien O'Keeffe, Reading Old English Texts, ii. This book is organised by different approaches. There were no other books dealing with the same topic after its publication until 2012 when Stodnick and Trilling edit another volume A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Studies. The latter differs from the former by arranging its chapters according to different topics rather than different approaches. In fact, neither book touches upon the cognitive approaches.
83 Donoghue, "Language matters," 65.
84 See Stodnick and Trilling, A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Studies.
85 See Stockwell, Cognitive Poetics:An Introduction; Brone and Vandaele, Cognitive Poetics:Goals, Gains and Gaps; Gavins and Steen, Cognitive Poetics in Practice.
86 See Clemoes, Interactions between Thought and Language.
87 Ibid., xiii-xiv.
88 Renton, A Cognitive Analysis of OE swa.
89 For the details and abstracts of the 14th conference of the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists, see the official website of this society, http://www.isas.us/conf/cfD9.html.
90 Harbus, "Cognitive Studies of Anglo-Saxon Mentalities" and Cognitive Approaches to Old English Poetry.
91 Harbus, Cognitive Approaches to Old English Poetry,1-24.
92 See Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture,26,94
93 See Le Goff, Medieval Civilization 400-1500,131-132.
94 See Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being:A Study of the History of an Idea,3.
95 Ibid.,3-4.
96 Ibid.
97 See Vy vyan Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning, and Temporal Cognition,3-4.
98 See Tony Bennett, New Keywords A Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society,352-353.
99 See Martin Haspelmath, From Space to Time Temporal Adverbials in the World's Languages,1-21.
100 See Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition, and "How We Conceptualize Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition."
101 See Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,107-200.
102 Ibid.,185.
103 Ibid.,185.
104 Ibid.,186.
105 Late-medieval scholarship has sometimes taken up "eventfulness":e.g., J. Allen Mitchell, Ethics and Eventfulness in Middle English Literature.; and also Le Goff's ideas of "church time" vs. "merchant time" in his "Merchant's Time and Church's Time in the Middle Ages." All those notions indicate the lexical concepts of time.
106 Bauschatz's monograph, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, and Grimm's Teutonic Mythology in three volumes have been reviewed in Section 1.1 of this dissertation.
107 See the abstract of 2013 MLA Special Session:Anglo-Saxon Futures, which is presided by Antonette diPaolo Healey at the University of Toronto. I'm very grateful to Professor Andrew Galloway for providing this abstract for me. Otherwise, I would not be able to find out the recent interest on the issue of futurity in the Anglo-Saxon scholarship.
108 See Sundaram, The Conceptualisation of Futurity in Old English, iii.
109 See Burrow and Wei. Medieval Futures:Attitudes to the Future in the Middle Ages
110 Ibid.,xi.
111 For the concern for futurity in early medieval Christianity, see Augustine's Confessions and Bede's Temporum where both authors elaborated the role of the future in the Christian chronology.
112 See Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,201-202.
113 Ibid.,202-204.
114 We should notice the difference between Evans and Higgins when they use the term "structure of time":the former uses it to denote the two levels of conceptual structure of time, while the latter only emphasises Evans's second level of time. See Higgins, "Medieval notions of the structure of time."
115 I use the term "time flow" to describe the second level of time. For an explanation of this choice, see Section 3.1 of this dissertation.
116 See Godden and Lapidge, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, ix.
117 I am very grateful to both Professor Andrew Galloway and Professor Hans Sauer who emphasised this point in their assessments of my dissertation.
118 For a detailed discussion of the different perceptions of time in the two major cultural traditions, see the first section of Chapters 2,3, and 4.
119 For a detailed discussion of the future, see Section 2.1 of this dissertation.
120 For a detailed discussion of "linear" and "cyclical" time, see Chapter 3 of this dissertation.
121 I avoid using "historical writings" since it will cause confusion if we regard Beowulf as a historical writing. However, this does not mean that Beowulf is not a literary work concerning the history of three major Germanic tribes.
122 For instance. Fox's Time and Eternity in Mid-Thirteenth-Century Thought is a treatment of this issue in the late Middle Ages. Jaritz and Moreno-Riano's Time and Eternity:The Medieval Discourse is a discussion of this issue in the broad medieval context, but this book equals the issue of time to that of eternity. Jackelen's Time and Eternity:The Question of Time in Church, Science, and Theology is an interdisciplinary treatment of this issue.
l23 For the understanding of eternity in the early Germanic culture, see Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,145-148.
124 For the early medieval Christian concept of eternity, the primary reference is Augustine's Confessions and Bede's Temporum.
125 See Godden and Lapidge, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, ix.
1 For the Modern English translation, see Outler, Augustine Confessions and Enchiridion,259. For a comprehensive study of Augustine, see Stump, etc., The Cambridge Companion to Augustine.
2 St. Ambrose, St. Jerome and St. Augustine are the three Christian scholars after Constantine's conversion. For a detailed description, see Bennett and Hollister, Medieval Europe:A Short History,24-29.
3 For instance, in Smith and Hung's interpretation of time in Christianity, they use Augustine's Confessions as the primary example. See Smith and Hung, "Bible and Time," 88.
4 See Confessions, Ⅺ,20.
5 Evans, "How we conceptualise time:language, meaning and temporal cognition," 751. Also see the discussion in Section 1.2 of this dissertation.
6 See Confessions, Ⅺ,12.
7 See Confessions, Ⅺ,13.
8 These two treatises are collected in The Complete Works of Venerable Bede Volume VI Scientic Tracts in Latin, ed. Gildes. Temporum was regarded by Bede as "a longer book on time", and is a enlarged version of De Temporibus. Therefore, in dealing with Bede's concept of time, I only make reference to the former in its Modern English translation, Bede:The Reckoning of Time, trans. Wallis. According to Bede, the audience of Temporum is his students. As regards the biblical interpretation of time, we have to distinguish the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) from the Christian Bible (New Testament). According to Smith and Hung ("Bible and Time") a comparison of them reveals the difference in their interpretations of time, "The Christian viewpoint regarding time is linear...The Hebrew concept of time was concerned with quality of time as it related to seasonal events like the rain in summer or an early autumn."
9 Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,3-4.
10 For this Modern English translation, see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,157.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.,158. According to Smith and Hung ("Bible and Time"), Augustine first mentioned the concept of the end of time in his seminal City of God in order to "provide a consolation of Christianity."
13 See Lapidge, The Anglo-Saxon Library,238.
14 As regards the two major cultural traditions in Anglo-Saxon England, see Section 1.3 of this dissertation.
15 Among the available literature, these two books are the most popular ones. Grimm's Teutonic Mythology is a comprehensive study of the early Germanic world; Bauschatz"s The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture deals with the perception of time and world in the early Germanic world.
16 Since the Roman alphabets were only introduced into the Germanic world after the conversion to Christianity, a study of mythology could reveal the early Germanic perceptions and ideas.
17 See Grimm. Teutonic Mythology'. For "god", see Volume 1,13-28; for "wights and evles",see Volume 439-517; for "souls", see Volume Ⅱ,526-838; for "time and world", see Volume 2,790-825.
18 See Grimm. Teutonic Mythology, Volume 2,815.
19 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,141-142.
20 For comments on Bauschatz's study, see Russell, The Germanisation of Early Medieval Christianity A Sociohistorical Approach to Religious Transformation,177 in which Bauschatz's observation of time in the early Germanic world is used as a central support for Russell.
21 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,141-142.
22 Ibid.,X.
23 Ibid.
24 See Quirk and Wrenn, An Old English Grammar,77.
25 Ibid.
26 Quirk et al, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language,176.
27 Ibid.,177.
28 See Gundarsson, Teutonic Religion:Folk Beliefs & Practices of the Northern Tradition,10-11.
29 See Mitchell, Old English Syntax, no.612,613,614. The book is cited by the entry number assigned by the author. Though Mitchell does not distinguish the future tense, he does mention the adverbs or phrases which refer to the future time. See, no.617.
30 Sundaram, The Conceptualisation of Futurity in Old English, ii.
31 Ibid.,148.
32 Ibid., iii.
33 Ibid.,149.
34 Ibid.,149.
35 DOEC makes it possible to consider the translation of futurus since DOEC includes a considerable number of bilingual texts in which Old English is used to gloss the foreign words, and most of the foreign words come from the medieval Latin. There are few investigations concerning the interpretation offuturus in the previous Anglo-Saxon scholarship. The arrival of DOEC makes it possible to investigate this issue.
36 "future," OED.
37 "futurus," OLD. Futurus is an adjective.
38 DOEC provides combined searches with more than one search word.
39 The example is generated in DOEC and occurs in AElfric's Grammatik und Glossar. For detailed description, see the list of texts in DOEC. This quotation is categorised as "gloss" in DOEC where Old English and Latin texts often occur interlinearlly for the purpose of learning Latin in Anglo-Saxon England.^Elfric's Grammatik und Glossar is a textbook for Anglo-Saxon students to learn Latin. I am greately indebted to Professor Thomas D. Hill for his explanation of this difficult text.AElfric's Grammatik und Glossar is a grammar book written for Anglo-Saxon students for the purpose of learning Latin. In DOEC, Latin words are italicised, and I retain the original editing format.
40 Ibid.
41 The translation of praescius futura into "knowing the future" is based on Professor Hill's explanation in his email.
42 This example is quoted from The Four Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions.
43 See Bede's interpretation of the Six Ages of the world in Temporum and also the discussion in section 2.1 of this chapter.
44 Wurado occurs only twice in DOEC and is used only in the Old English translation of Matthew.
45 See "future" in OED and ODEE.
46 See Augustine's discussion in Confessions and Bede's discussions in Temporum.
47 See TOE,250.
48 I used toweard and toweardan as the search keywords.
49 In my translation of Old English poetry, I use "/" to show the line breaking in the original texts.
50 Bosworth defines toweard as "future, that is to come". See "toweard," ASD.
51 The idea of "Germanisation" is advanced by Russell in his The Germanisation of Early Medieval Christianity. For details, see pp.43,134, and 207 of this book.
52 See Hogg, The Cambridge History of the English Language Volume I The Beginning to 1066,5.
53 See Baker, Introduction to Old English,2. Klaeber also observes in Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburh, "the kennings very often take the form of compounds... Fully one third of the entire vocabulary, or some 1070 words, are compound", p. lxv; Robinson regards compound as apposition, see Robinson, Beowulf and the Appositive Style,14.
54 Brady discussed the compounds for weapons in Beowulf and the poet's purpose in using them. See Brady, "'Weapons'in Beowulf:an analysis of the nominal compounds and an evaluation of the poet's use of them," 79.
55 See Klaeber's observation in Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburh, lxv.
56 All the Old English words beginning with F have been defined in DOE, and this makes it possible for us to calculate the number of Old English compounds beginning with the prefix fore-.
57 See the entries of "fore" and "fore-" in DOE. Cf. the same entries in OED.
58 These words are selected from DOE and ASD; we offer literal definitions of these words based on their dictionary definitions.
59 See Alfred, Pastoral, Chapter 56, p.433,1.22.
60 See the entry of"cwide"in ASD.
61 See HE, Book 3, Chapter 16.
62 Bede, Temporum.
63 The search in DOEC shows 5 occurrences of forecwide in the whole corpus of Old English:1 in HE and 4 in The Four Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions.
64 We use Buck's DSSPIL to detect the common words that occur in two or more Germanic languages. Furthermore, DOE is another useful tool since it offers hypertext links to the dictionaries of other Germanic languages. However, my search in in the corpus shows that those compounds occur only limitedly in Old English.
65 For the discussion of the Christian elements in Beowulf, see Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburh, xlviii-li, and also Irving Jr., "Christian and Pagan Elements," 175-192.
66 Concerning the relationship between time and narrative, Ricoeur's Time and Narrative is the standard reference. In the book, he distinguishes two modes of narrative:history and fictional narrative, and defines the latter as "from the ancient epic to the modern novel." See Volume 1,226. According to this distinction, Beowulf apparently belongs to "fictional narrative," Time is a central concern of these two modes of narrative.
67 For instance, Leneghan discusses the function of digression in Beowulf in terms of its poetic purpose. "The Poetic Purpose of the Offa-Digression in Beowulf."
68 For various interpretations of the structure of Beowulf, see Shippey, "Structure and Unity" which has a chronological review of the studies on the structure of Beowulf. A more recent treatment of this issue is Orchard's A Critical Companion to Beowulf, see chapter 3 of this book.
69 For instance, Orchard labels Beowulf as an epic in A Critical Companion to Beowulf,40,80,92; Robinson puts Beowulf in the category of "narrative poem", see Robinson, "Beowulf" 142.
70 See Ricoeur, Time and Narrative,52. The italicized way of presenting belongs to the original work.
71 See folios 130r and 141v of the Beowulf manuscript edited by Julius Zupitza.
72 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, x.
73 See Bjork, "Digression and Episodes," 193-212. Bjork surveyed the criticism concerning digression in Beowulf and argued, "[t]he digressions and episodes in Beowulf constitute a large part of that envelope and become a dominant means of conveying 'this varying, this unknown and uncircumscribed spirit'." (p.211.)
74 Ibid.
75 See Bruce Moore, "The Thryth-Offa Digression in Beowulf," 127-33
76 This perception of time, passing from the past to the present, and from the present to the future, is different from Augustine's division of time into the past, the present and the future with the present as the reference point See the discussion in Section 2.1 of this dissertation.
77 See Shippey, "Structure and Unity," 149.
78 Tolkien's position in Anglo-Saxon scholarship has been recognised by appointment as Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford. Currently, Professor Andy Orchard is holding that position.
79 See Tolkien, "Beowulf:The Monsters and the Critics," 28.
80 For Orchard's interpretation of Beowulf s structure, see Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf,78-91. For Albert Lord's oral and formulaic theories, see Lord, The Singer of Tales,3-13. For an overview of the oral formulaic approach in reading Old English texts, see Orchard, Andy. "Oral tradition," 101-123. For a detailed discussion of this approach, see Foley, Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research:An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.
81 See Lord, The Singer of Tales,198-202.
82 For Liu's interpretation, see刘乃银,“时间与空间《贝奥武甫》的结构透视.”
83 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, x.
84 See Tolkien, "Beowulf:The Monsters and the Critics," 28.
85 See Ricoeur, Time and Narrative,52.
86 See the discussion in Section 2.1 of this chapter and also Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,157-158.
87 The figure is reproduced from Bauschatz's The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, 140. The concept of "nonpast" is worth mentioning here since it perhaps embodies the notion of the future in early Germanic culture.
88 See Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburh, Iii.
89 For the three-part division, see Staver, A Companion to Beowulf,113 and also Fulk et al., Klaeber's Beowulf, lxxx.
90 See Robinson, Beowulf and the Appositive Style, vii.
91 See Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf,58. In Orchard's discussion, the words "variation" and "apposition" are synonyms and used interchangeably.
92 Ibid.,72-82.
93 The result of wyrd's occurrences is generated from DOEC with wyrd as the search keyword.
94 See Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture,100.
95 Bauschatz's interpretation of the concepts of time in early Germanic culture has been discussed in detail in comparison with the early medieval Christian concepts of time in Section 2.1.
96 There will be further discussion about the difference between the two in terms of "Moving Time Model" and "Moving Ego Model" in Chapter 3 of this dissertation.
97 For the notion of "warrior of God", see Horvath's "Saint Guthlac, the Warrior of God in the Guthlac Poems of the Exeter Book" which deals with the image of warrior in Guthlac.
98 Various scholars have studied the similarities between Beowulf and Andreas, the latter being a Christian hagiography written in Old English. In Andreas, Andreas is a Christian saint.If we could find the intertextual relationship between these two poems, it is reasonable for us to claim that Beowulf was partially described as a Christian saint.
99 In Beasts of Time:Apocalyptic Beowulf, Risden examined the sense of "apocalypticism" in Beowulf, and argued, "Apocalypse implies an end that must ultimately come, whatever one may do. One may, must, prepare for it, but may not avoid it. That kind of concern seems to be me central to understanding the effect of Beowulf as a poem." See p.2 of the book. However, he thought that "both Christian and Germanic cosmologies foreground apocalyptic concerns or myths." This may not be true since he probably identified "apocalypticism" with wyrd in early Germanic culture. We do not see the end of time in early Germanic culture if we accept his definition of "apocalypticism." Green also discusses the sense of "apocalypticism" in several Old English poems. See Green, "Man, Time, and Apocalypse in The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and Beowulf." JEGP 74 (1975):502-18.
100 See the discussion in Section 2.1, and also Bede, Temporum,272.
101 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,193-213.
102 See Robinson, "Beowulf," 142-159.
103 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,48-49.
104 For a discussion of this issue, see ibid.,50-61.
105 O'Brien O'Keeffe, Chronicle, MS. C, AD 901.
106 See the entry of AD 897 in Chronicle MS C.
107 For King Alfred's connection with Rome, see the description in Asser's Life of King Alfred. For the translation of Asser's work, see Cook, Asser's Life of King Alfred.
108 "Werferth (Waerferth, Werfrith, or Waerfrith) was an English bishop of Worcester, from 873 to 915. A contemporary and friend of Alfred the Great, he was a significant translator, from Latin into Old English. His translations include the Dialogues of Gregory, commissioned by Alfred." The information of Waerferth is quoted from the entry for "Werferth" in Wikipedia Online which is accessible at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werferth.
109 Alfred, Pastoral,2. The Modern English version is translated by Kathleen Davis. The translation is accessible online at http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/english/courses/engl440/pastoral/translation.shtml.
110 In the Letter to Waerferth, the repetitive line occurs three times throught the text.
111 Alfred, Pastoral,4.
112 Ibid.,6.
113 See Alfred, Pastoral,6. For this Modern English translation, see http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/english/courses/eng1440/pastoral/translation.shtml.
124 See Bauchatz,The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,148. The transition between the past and the present suggests the direction of time and,in this perception of time, the past is the focus of time.
115 Alfred, Soliloquies,2. For this Modern English translation, see Hargrove, King Alfred's Old English Version of St. Augustine's Soliloquies,2.
116 Alfred. Soliloquies.2. For this Modern English translation, see King Alfred's Old English Version of St. Augustine's Soliloquies,1-2.
117 Fulk and Cain group The Ruin into the category of "wisdom literature", see A History of Old English Literature, 180,186-187; Daniel Donoghue labels it as the poems describing the hall, see Old English Literature:A Very Short Introduction; Fell in The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature discusses the poem under the chapter title "Perceptions of transience", see Fell, "Perceptions of transience," 179-180.
118 Brady has called Beowulf"a secular heroic story" in his paper "'Warriors'in Beowulf:an analysis of the nominal compounds and an evaluation of the poet's use of them," 199. However, I think Beowulf is a poem with explicit Christian references such as the episode telling of the origin of Grendel in 11.86-114.
119 Rollinson has considered the issue of Christian influence on Old English poems in his paper "The influence of Christian doctrine and exegesis on Old English poetry:an estimate of the current state of scholarship" in which he touches upon the distinction between Old English poems with and without explicit Christian content.
120 There are several verse translations of The Ruin. For a more literal translation, see Kenney, An Anthology of Old English Literature,8-9, while for a more liberal translation, see Delanty and Matto, The Word Exchange: Anglo-Saxon Poems in Translation,298-299. Monige liberally means "many", but I interpret it as "spacious" according the context of the poem. I frequently refer to ASD in my interpretation of the poem.
121 See Fell's comments in "Perceptions of transience," 179. Similar comments could also be found in Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,187-188.
122 See Doubleday."The Ruin:Structure and Theme."
123 There was no direct reference to the Viking invasion in the poem.
124 The standard edition of the Exeter Book is Volume Ⅲ of ASPR. See Krapp and Dobbie, The Exeter Book, ASPR Volume Ⅲ.
125 The repetitive line has also been given the name "refrain" in the Anglo-Saxon scholarship. See Mandel, "Exemplum and Refrain:The Meaning of Deor."
126 See Banerjee, "Deor:The Refrain."
127 For instance, Payne discusses the three aspects of wyrd in Beowulf, compares the wryd in Beowulf and King Alfred's Boethius, and concludes that wyrd could have many layers of meanings in Beowulf. See Payne, "Three aspects of Wyrd in Beowulf."
128 I won't go into this issue in detail. The point I want to emphasise is that the concept of wryd exhibits its differences in the early Germanic and the Christian contexts.
129 See Ricour, Time and Narrative, volume 1,226.
130 For instance, three major histories of Old English literature, A History of Old English Literature, The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, and A New Critical History of Old English Literature, treat Bede in special section. In ASE Bibliography, and OEN Bibliography, entries related to HE and Caedmon's Hymn is collected in "Old English literature."
131 For a comprehensive discussion of Bede's works, see Lapidge, Bede and his World:The Jarrow Lectures, which is a collection of lecture papers dealing with almost every topic concerning Bede.
132 Bede's Latin works have been published in the eight volumes of The Complete Works of Venerable Bede.
133 See Blair, The World of Bede, ⅸ.
134 For this Modern English translation, see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,3.
135 See Temporum,270.
136 Chapters 1 to 4 are devoted to the explanation of the technical terms employed in the discussion of time. Chapters 5 to 11 focus on the Julian calendar in terms of the calculation of days, months, weeks, etc.
137 See Blair, The World of Bede,261.
138 See Temporum,141.
See Giles, The Complete Works of Venerable Bede, Volume VI Scientic Tracts in Latin.
See Temporum,166-168 and also Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,39-41.
141 See Temporum,272. For this Modern English translation, see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,158.
142 Temporum,342. For this Modern English translation, see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,249.
143 See chapters I to IV of Bede's HE, Book 1.
144 HE, Book 1, Chapter II, III, EETS 95,30. For this Modern English translation, see Miller, The Old English Version ofBede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,16.
145 HE, Book 1, Chapter Ⅳ, EETS 95,52. For this Modern English translation, see Miller, The Old English Version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,16-17.
146 HE, Book 1, Chapter IX, EETS 95,46. For this translation, see Miller, The Old English Version ofBede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,23.
147 HE, Book 1, Chapter Ⅻ, EETS 95,52. For this translation, see Miller, The Old English Version o/Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,26.
148 HE, Book 1, Chapter ⅩⅢ, EETS 95,54. For this translation, See Miller, The Old English Version ofBede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,27.
149 See Wormald, "Bede, Beowulf, and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy," 33.
150 HE, Book 5, Chapter XXII, EETS 111,480. For this Modern English translation, see Miller, The Old English Version ofBede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,212.
151 See Temporum, Chapter LXVI.
152 In their general introduction to the English literature of the Middle Ages in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, David and Simpson observe, "Medieval authors...sometimes expressed the idea that the world was growing old and that theirs was a declining age, close to the end of time." See Greenblatt and Abrams, The Norton Anthology of English Literature,1. In the case of Bede, he seemed to regard the end of time as the end of the Sixth Age, and time in the Seventh and Eighth Ages stopped and became eternal.
153 See HE, Book 1, Chapter Ⅳ,32.
154 See HE, Book 1, Chapter ⅩⅢ,54.
155 For the time of composition, see HE, Book 5, Chapter XXII, in which Bede wrote the last entry. The time he mentions is AD 731, so we place the date of the composition of HE roughly in the first half of the 8th century.
156 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,64.
157 For a discussion of the relationship between King Alfred and Chronicle, see Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,69-69, and also Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, xviii.
158 Chronicle records the beginning of the Viking raid in AD 832.
159 See the discussion in Section 2.4 of Chapter 2 in this dissertation.
160 The phrase "Chronicle-annalists" rather than "Chronicle-authors" is used since the term "annalists" is specially retained for the authors or persons who write annals. "Annalist" is used in its plural form since Chronicle is completed with the efforts of generations of annalists. For a definition of "annalist", see the entry "annalist" in OED.
161 Chronicle, MS. E, AD 596.
162 Chronicle, MS. A, Preface,
163 Chronicle, MS. A, AD 853.
164 Chronicle, MSS. A & E, AD 867.
165 See Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, xviii.
166 See Godden, "The Millennium, Time and History for the Anglo-Saxons," 155.
167 See Chronicle, MS. C, AD 1000. For this Modern English translation, see Garmonsway, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,133.
168 See Chronicle, MS. A, AD 853, For this Modern English translation, see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,64.
169 Wang observes, "With the introduction of Christian ideology, as historical documents show, the importance of the possession of God's blessing and of intellectual widsom, in Anglo-Saxon politics, encroaches on the substance of the old Germanic ascending kingship, which stresses such royal virtues as right lineage, physical prowess and generosity." See Wang, The Concept of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon and Chinese Literature A Comparative Study of Beowulf and Xuanhe Yishi, v. Wang analyses the concept of kingship in Beowulf, but in Chronicle,
170 See Chronicle, MS. A, AD 901.
171 For ecean rice, see quotation 2.26 above. For cing ofer eall Angelcynn, see quotation 2.29.
172 Stafford argued, "The fact of the writing of history, and not merely the facts which that writing records, is now recognized as a potential source for our understanding of political attitudes, of group and individual identity, if not of group formation itself." See Stanfford, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, Identity and the Making of England." He did not mention the possible function of Chronicle in forming the identity of being a united England, especial regarding the function of the Christian chronology in that formation.
173 See O'Brien O'Keeffe, "Heroic values and Christian ethics," 107.
174 See Hill, "The Age of Man and the World in the Old English Guthlac A" 13.
175 See Trilling, The Aesthetics of Nostalgia:Historical Representation in Old English Verse,255-256.
176 See Higgins, "Medieval Notion of the Structure of Time," 229.
177 See the discussion in section 2.1 of this chapter and also Quirk, etc., A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language,176.
178 See Sundaram, The Conceptualisation of Futurity in Old English, iii.
1 Marcus, "change," 159. Marcus discusses the concept of change in an interdisciplinary context in which she considers the philosophical, social, and sociological concerns of the concept of change.
2 Wallis translated volubili as "fleeting", see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,249.
3 Wojcieson, "Time and Universe," 1334. There are various phrases or words in different scholarly contexts denoting the property of time changing from one state to another. We may simply use "time change" to denote that property. Since we focus primarily on "linear" and "cyclical", we choose to employ "time flow" which is used by Wojcieson to describe the structure of time. In another case, Smart employs the metaphor TIME IS RIVER to express the dynamic nature of time. See Smart, "The River of Time."
4 See Wojcieson, "Time and Universe," 1334.
5 See Higgins, "Medieval Notion of the Structure of Time," 238.
6 See Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,202-204.
7 See Lock, Aspects of Time in Medieval Literature, i-iii.
8 For the term "concern," see Vatsyayan, Concepts of Time:Ancient and Modern, i-vi; for the term "sense," see Evans, "How We Conceptualise Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition," 737.
9 In "Reference frames of time and space in language," Tenbrink studied the similarity between time and space in terms of their conceptualisations in language, and confirmed "metaphorical transfer of clearly spatially based concepts on the other." This "metaphorical transfer"is of importance for the concept of time flow in the Anglo-Saxon context since it primarily involves this kind of transfer.
10 In the pevious literature concerning the linear or cyclical sense of time, different terms have been proposed to categorize that relationship. For instance, Higgins has considered this sense as the "structure of time", see Higgins, "Medieval Notion of the Structure of Time," 229-230; in Encyclopedia of Time Science, Philosophy. Theology and Culture, Wojcieson also considers this sense as "the structure of time" which "flows as either cyclical or linear," and the linear or cyclical sense is discussed in the entry "time and universe". However, I think that the linear or cyclical sense of time originates from the spatial understanding of time. The terms we use to describe the linear-cyclical distinction of time like "direction", "flow", "end", or "beginning" all originate from the spatial domain.
11 For "domain" and "category", see the discussion in Section 1.2. Chapter 1 of this dissertation.
12 For instance, the Old English poems The Seafarer and The Wanderer are lamenting men's inability to resist the passing of time. Thus, in these two poems, the passing of time is the direct subject. In the Old English genre of elegies, the time or the passing of time is usually their concerns.
13 The term "historical intentionality" is used by Ricoeur in Time and Narrative, which he defines as, "the intentionality of historical knowledge or, by abbreviation, historical intentionality. By this I refer to the meaning, of the noetic intention that forms the historical character of history and keeps it from dissolving into the other types of knowledge with which history is joined through its marriage of convenience with economics, geography, demography, ethnology, and the sociology of mentalite and of ideologies." See Volume 1,180.1 use it to refer to the purpose of the author when he writes a history.
14 See the discussion in Section 2.2 of Chapter 1.
15 As for the concept of "spatial conceptualisation", see Crabtree's Spatial Conceptualisation in Anglo-Saxon Thought and Experience An Interdisciplinary Enquiry, which examines the notion of spatial conceptualisation in Anglo-Saxon England.
16 See Evans, "How We Conceptualise Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition," 737 and The Structure of Time,107-150. See also our discussion in Section 1.3.
17 See Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture,26.
18 See TenHouten, Time and Society,1.
19 See Carolyn Evans, "Cognition," 200.
20 See Mandler, The Foundations of Mind:Origins of Conceptual Thought,87.
21 Fauconnier and Turner, "Rethinking Metaphor," 54.
22 In fact, there are several questions preceding this one:How could we define spatial relations? What spatial relations are available? It is beyond the range of this dissertation to discuss these questions. It suffices to explain that the linear or cyclical relation discussed later belongs to the domain of space. When we consider this issue of time, we are actually employing the concepts from the domain of space to conceptualise the concept of time flow.
23 Russell, The Germanisation of Early Medieval Christianity A Sociohistorical Approach to Religious Transformation,176. The notions of the origin and the end of time have also been discussed by Bede in Temporum and by Augustine in Confessions. See the discussion in Section 2.1 of this dissertation.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 See Le Goff, Medieval Civilization 500-1500,131-132.
27 See Porter, "Time Measurement and Chronology in Medieval Studies," 1350.
28 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,148.
29 When Le Goff, Porter and Bauschatz employed these terms, they focused on the historical intentionality uderlying these two modes of time flow without proper definitions of them.
30 For instance, Evans in The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition considers "linear" and "cyclical" as two motions of time. Though he does not use the term "flow", I think "flow" and "motion" are synonymous in Evans's discussion. See pp.201-205 of the book.
31 See Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,57 and also Grady, "Metaphor," 190-192.
32 Ibid.,254-260
33 The convention of capitalizing all letters to show a single metaphor in cognitive linguistics is preserved in this dissertation.
34 Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,202-203.
35 Ibid. Evans's interpretation of human's path as straight lines may not be right.
36 Ibid. See also Evans, "How We Conceptualise Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition."
37 Ibid.,212-215.
38 Ibid.
39 See Kopar, "Spatial Understanding of Time in early Germanic Cultures:the Evidence of Old English Time Words and Norse Mythology," 203-230.
40 See Fauconnier and Turner, "Rethinking Metaphor," 54.
41 Using DOEC as the search tool, I calculate the occurrences of these four time words in Old English. I did not presuppose they have the largest number of occurrences in Old English, and the result is arrived at by searching almost every time words in Old English. In Table 3.1,I list only four words.
42 The reason that the number of occurrences in verse plus that in prose does not equal to the total number is that there are five text categories in DOEC with the other three categories being gloss, glossary and rune.
43 British National Corpus is accessibly on line freely at http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/.
44 The variant spellings of hwil include hwile. The variant spellings of variant spellings of each time words have been taken into consideration in the calculation.
45 ASD records four variant spellings of tid, tide, tida, and tidum.
46 There is one variant spelling for tima:timan.
47 Table 2.1 shows the frequency and distribution information of the general time words in Old English. The calculation information of each time words is generated from DOEC. The words are listed according to the number of occurrences. To show the contrast, I also calculate the frequency of occurrences of these time words in Modern English based on BNC.
48 See DSSPIL,954 and also the entry "while" in OED.
49 See "tide", OED.
50 See Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture,101.
51 See Cook, Asser's Life of King Alfred,61-62.
52 Ibid.
53 See "space" entry in OED.
54 There are 25 occurrences of spatium in DOEC:six of them were translated with faec,2 with first, and 3 with hwile. The rest of them only occur in DOEC without any translation or interpretation.
55 This example is taken from DOEC and it originally occurs in AElfrics Grammatik und Glossar which is edited by Zupitza.
56 See TOE,274.
57 See "bradnes", DOE.
58 Kopar, "Spatial Understanding of Time in early Germanic Cultures:the Evidence of Old English Time Words and Norse Mythology," 203-230.
59 See Bately, "Time and the Passing of Time in 'The Wanderer' and Related OE Texts."
60 For the definitions, see "fore" in OED, ASD and DOE.
61 Ibid.
62 The compounds listed here are selected from various sources including TOE, ASD, DOE, and OED. In this sense, I use the raw data provided in the philological scholarship.
63 See "forth" and "back" in OED.
64 See "forth", OED.
65 Forlogesceaft has 7 occurrences in DOEC and all of them occur in Old English verse texts such as Dream and Beowulf.
66 See the "history" entry in OED.
67 Ibid.
68 No one would doubt that HE and Chronicle are "history" writings since both record the history of English, while for Guthlac A and Christ III, probably not all would classify them as "history" writings. In the Anglo-Saxon scholarship, Guthlac A is hagiography, and Christ III is the Old English retelling of the biblical story. All the four works records the history, whether national or personal, historical and mythical. In this sense, I juxtapose these four works and have a comparative analysis of them in order to show how the linear concept of time was accepted by these Anglo-Saxon authors.
69 See Lamb, "Linear time," 1273.
70 The term "Ego" is used by Evans in his The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition. He defines "Ego" as the person who perceives time in a spatial representation of the relationship between man and time.
71 See Evans, The Structure of Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,201-254 and also "How We Conceptualise Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition," 733-765.
72 Ibid.
73 These examples are from BNC.
74 This diagram is reproduced from Evans's The Structure of Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition, 215.
75 See Evans, The Structure of Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,201-254
76 Ibid.,219.
77 There is a discussion of the relationship between Christ and time in Cullmann's Christ and Time:The Primitive Christian Conception of Time and History.
78 Chronicle, MS. C,60BC. Chronicle is cited here by the year and line numbers assigned by DOEC.
79 HE, Book 1, Chapter Ⅳ.
80 Chronicle, MS. A, AD 33,
81 See "from", OED.
82 For Augustine's explanation of the relativity of the past and the present, see Confessions, XI,20.
83 For Bede's elaboration of the Six Ages of the world, see Wallis, The Reckoning of Time,157-237; for Augustine's interpretation of the end of time, see Confessions, Ⅸ,6
84 My point here differs from that of Hunter who argues that "the ancient tradition of Europe and the Mediterranean...were more or less consciously fused into a single, composite picture, dominated by the Christianity which provided a matrix for Anglo-Saxon thought, with a universal past and an apocalyptic future." See Hunter, "Germanic and Roman antiquity and the sense of the past in Anglo-Saxon England," 49.I do not think that we could place Chronicle in the "matrix" of Christianity. Though both books give linear narrations of history, they have different interpretation for the linearity involved in history.
85 For the term "matrix", see Hunter, "Germanic and Roman antiquity and the sense of the past in Anglo-Saxon England," 49.
86 See HE, Book 1, EETS 95,2.
87 HE, Book 1, Chapter 2.
88 Ibid.
89 See HE, Book 1, Chapter 12,11.17-23. For this Modern English translation, see Miller, The Old English Version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,25.
90 For this Modern English translation, see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,49.
91 Ibid.,409.
92 See "here", OED.
93 See the discussion in Section 2.3 of Chapter 2. We mention this when we discuss the concept of the future in Chronicle. The concept of the future is relevant to this type of linearity with the coronation moment of the secular kings as the starting point.
94 King Alfred has been mentioned in the preface, AD 853, AD 855, AD 867, AD 868, AD 871, AD 875-878, AD 882, AD 883, AD 885-97, AD 901, AD 940, and AD 941. For this calculation, see the Index of Swanton's The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,332.
95 For this Modem English translation, see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,73.
96 See Russell, The Germanisation of Early Medieval Christianity:A Sociohistorical Approach to Religious Transformation,176.
97 According to Ker, all the manuscripts survived in Anglo-Saxon England were written in the late 10th century or later. Those written earlier were rare. See Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon, xv-xx.
8 See the discussion in Section 2.3 of Chapter 2.
99 For this Modern English translation, see Garmonsway, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,268-269.
100 See Dream,40b-41.
101 The association of Christ's ascending the tree with the Christian linear concept of time owes much gratitude to my discussion with Professor Thomas Hill. According to his explanation, the notion of Jesus ascending the Cross is in Christian Latin literature.
102 See Geeraerts and Cuyckens, The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics,3 and 188.
103 The search result comes from the search of "tidfara" in DOEC.
104 See Gneuss, "The Old English language," 47.
105 See "fara."OED
106 See Bradley,Anglo-Saxon Poetry,250.
107 See Allen and Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry:The Major Latin Texts in Translation, 108.
108 See Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,248.
109 Qtd. in Patrick Wormald, "Anglo-Saxon society and its literature," 6.
110 See "tid." entry in ASD.
111 See Geeraerts and Cuyckens, The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics,198.
112 Ibid.
"time traveller", OED,3rd edition in progress which is accessible by subscription.
114 Ibid.
115 See the discussion in Chapter 1 of this dissertation. The image of halgan ham could be found in various Old English texts.
116 See Evans, The Structure of Time Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,10.
7 For this Modern English prose translation, see Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,268.
118 Ibid.,253.
119 Christ Ⅲ is collected in The Exeter Book. See Krapp and Dobbie, ASPR Ⅲ The Exeter Book,3-48.
120 See Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,228.
121 See Allen and Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry I The Major Latin Texts in Translation,84.
122 Ibid.,85-107.
123 See Kuznets and Green, "Voice and Vision in the Old English Christ Ⅲ," 127.
124 The text of Christ Ⅲ is quoted from ASPR Ⅲ The Exeter Book,27.
125 Mount Sion, also Mount Zion, is "The house or household of God; and hence connoting variously, the Israelites and their religious system, the Christian Church, heaven as the final home of believers, a place of worship or meeting-house." See "Zion," OED.
126 These three words occur in Christ Ⅲ,11.910-911, "He bio pam godum glaedmod on gesihbe,/wlitig, wynsumlic, weorude pam halgan."
127 These two words occur in Christ Ⅲ,1.918, "He bio pam yflum egeslic ond grimlic."
128 See the discussion in Section 2.3 of this dissertation.
129 See Kendall, The Metrical Grammer of Beowulf,1.
130 See Niles, "Ring Composition and the Structure of Beowulf." In another case, Portnoy observes the ring composition in other Old English poems. See Portnoy, "Ring Composition and the Digressions of Exodus:The 'Legacy' of the 'Remnant'."
131 See Niles, "Ring Composition and the Structure of Beowulf."
132 Ibid.
133 Hunter observed, "Beowulf and the Finnesburh fragment show the deep affection that the Saxons felt for legends of life and adventure in the heroic age, an enthusiasm running deeper than mere curiosity about the early history of Denmark." He further argued that the pagan past in Anglo-Saxon is "fused into a single, composite picture, dominated by the Christinaity which provided a matrix for the Anglo-Saxon thought, with a universal past and an apocalyptic future." See Hunter, "Germanic and Roman antiquity and the sense of the past in Anglo-Saxon England," 29 and 49. His argument is applicable in the opening genealogical description in Beowulf. Hunter did not view the opening narration in light of the concept of time flow. If we place the narration of Beowulf in a Christian context, we may sense that the poet apparently attempted to create a sense of beginning for the Beowulf world. The question is why the poet did not identity the Creation of the world as the beginning of the Beowulf world. The answer to this question involves the poet's adoption of the Christian linearity of time.
134 Orchard argues that "the language of Beowulf can largely be said to be based on two opposing principles, namely repetition and variation, which essentially both perform the same function:setting separate elements side by side for the purpose of comparison and contrast." See Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf,57-58. As regards the case of mead-hall, the Beowulf-poet apparently used different Old English words with the same referent.
135 For this interpretation, see Staver, A Companion to Beowulf,121.
136 As regards the relation between Beowulf and the Danish court, I think the royal lineage between them is slim, and Beowulf s act to save the Danish kingdom results primarily from his sense of responsibility as a protecter of human being.
137 Kroll has identified Beowulf as "keeper of human polity" in the sense that Beowulf is a counter-figure in contrast with Cain who killed his brother. Our understanding of Beowulf taking the role of saving this civilized world is different from that of Kroll. See Kroll, "Beowulf:The Hero as Keeper of Human Polity."
138 Heaney's opinion is indirectly quoted in McCarthy, Seamus Heaney and Medieval Poetry,102.
139 The warfares between different kingdoms are quite often in the Germanic world. For instance, in Chronicle, the annalists recorded various battles among Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the history of Anglo-Saxon England, we see "the Mercian Supremacy" in the early eighth century, the Viking invasions and the rise of Wessex in the late eighth century and nineth century. For a brief history of Anglo-Saxon England, see Blair, "The Anglo-Saxon Period," 60-119.
140 Kroll, "Beowulf. The Hero as Keeper of Human Polity."
141 Liuzza used "bold demon" to translate ellorgaest, see Liuzza, Beowulf A New Verse Translation,55. Klaeber glossed it "alien spirit", see Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburh,300. According to the context of this word in Beowulf, we could guess the Beowulf-poet could probably use the word to translate the Christian concept of "demon."
142 Qtd. in Bullough, "What has Ingeld to do with Lindisfarne?"
143 Contrast the use of ic ("Ⅰ") in 11.38,62,74.
144 See Osbora, "The Great Feud:Scriptural History and Strife in Beowulf," 973.
145 Ibid.
146 For the discussion of the analogue between Beowulf and Andreas, see Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,110-112, and Anderson, "Sources and Analogues," 125-148. In this dissertation, we mainly discuss the similarity between Beowulf and Andreas in terms of their presentations of events.
147 For instance, in Old English, we have Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel, all of which are based upon the Old Testament.
8 See Frank, "The Beowulf'Poet's Sense of History," 54.
149 John D. Niles has a review of those criticisms ranging from the very beginning of Beowulf to the very recent discussion. See "Myth and History," 213-232.
150 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,140-148.
151 For the discussion of the authorship, see Sedgefield, King Alfred's Old English Version ofBoethius De Consolatione Philosophiae, xxxvi-xli.
152 According to Franklin, the comparative investigation of the Latin texts and their Old English translations "can be useful for the establishment of a better text, for clarifing an unclear translation, and also at times for better understanding the historical context in which both the original texts and its translations(s) were formed."
153 This metaphor occurs in the Old English translation of Consolation. Filice considers the circle as an anology of the concept of eternity. See Filice, "eternity," 439.
154 For more information, see "wheel" entry in OED. The Modern English "wheel" is derived from the Old English hweol.
155 Among those 41 occurrences,5 of them occur in verse texts,13 occur in gloss, and 23 occur in prose texts. The data is generated from DOEC.
156 Consolation,19.
157 See O'Brien O'Keeffe, Visible Song:Transitional Literacy in Old English Verse,1.
158 Consolation, Chapter 39, p.129,1.19. The Modern English translation is quoted from Miller, The Old English Version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People,63.
159 See the entry "rota" in OLD.
160 For the discussion of the conceptual metaphor theory, see Section 1.3 of Chapter 1.
161 The question is raised by Helmut Gneuss in "The Old English language," 38.
162 See the discussion in Chapter 2. For the concept of "unit-idea", see Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being:A Study of the History of an Idea,1-4.
163 See Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture,
1 In the field of medieval studies, I find three monographs dealing with the relationship between time and eternity, Time and Eternity:The Medieval Discourse, eds. Jaritz and Moreno-Riafno, Time and Eternity in Mid-Thirteenth-Century Thought by Fox, and Time and Eternity:The Question of Time in Church, Science, and Theology by Jackelen.
2 In Time and Eternity:The Question of Time in Church, Science, and Theology, Jackelen regarded eternity as the primary question of time and observed, "the conception of time has consequences for a large number of theological topics, not only for the entire field of eschatology, but also for the concepts of God, the understanding of the Incarnation, and numerous other fields." (p.2)
3 For instance, in Temporum, Bede described the scene of the Day of Judgement, "And so our little book concerning the fleeting and wave-tossed course of time comes to a fitting end in eternal stability and stable eternity. And should those who read it deem it worthy, I ask that they commend me in their prayers to the Lord, and that they behave with pious zeal towards God and their neighbour, to the best of their ability, so that fater temporal exertions in heavenly deeds, we may all deserve to receive the palm of heavenly reward." See Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,249. For Bede, the end of time is idential to eternity since in his perception time is non longer a problem after "the Seventh Age of perennial sabbath" and "the Eight Age of the blessed Resuurection".
4 See note 2.
5 See "eternal," OED.
6 Ibid.
7 See"aeternus,"OLD.
8 See "aetern," OLD.
9 I have defined time flow as a consequence of the spatial conceptualisation in the previous chapter, and this is true of eternity. This phenomenon could be explained the blending of time and space in the conceptual system, the former being abstract and the latter being concrete. The spatial interpretation of time is a natural cognitive process.
10 The second point is where man has the closest relationship with time. The future is concerned with nostalgia, prophecy and identity, time flow with cyclicity, linearity and salvation, while eternity is a permanent issue confronting our human beings.
11 For Manchester's discussion, see Manchester, "eternity," 2853.
12 Ibid.
13 The divine meanings of eternity derive from its basic meaning, the infinite expansion of time.
14 See Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,157-159.
15 See Marenbon and Luscomber, "Two medieval ideas:eternity and hierarchy," 51-52.
16 See Grimm, Teutonic Mythology,790-825.
17 Ibid.
18 See "world," OED.
19 See Fell, "Perceptions of transience," 172-189, and Gatch, "Perceptions of eternity," 190-205.
20 See Fell, "Perceptions of transience," 172
21 Ibid.
22 See Gatch, "Perceptions of eternity," 190-205.
23 Ibid.
24 See Grosskopf, "Time and Eternity in the Anglo-Saxon Elegies," 323-324.
25 See Bremmer, "The Final Countdown:Apocalyptic Expectations in Anglo-Saxon Charters," 501-514.
26 McFarland defines "sacred time" as "Sacred time is, in the strict sense of the term sacred, time set apart. It is time separated from profane, everyday time, distinguished by its connection with the deeper, holy, extraordinary experience of life. Sometimes described as 'the breaking forth of the eternal in time,'the essense of sacred time has been concerived variously as a presence in which the past and future collapse into an 'Eternal Now,'or the complete conflation of past, present, and future into something that might be referred to as timelessness or the collapse of time." See McFarland, "Sacred Time," 1316.
27 Those texts are quoted from the output of the search result in DOEC.
28 Ref. Ker's description of the manuscript in which The Vespasian Psalter was collected in the entry 203. See Ker, Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon,266-267.
29 In King James Bible, Psalm 24 is translated as follows:"Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift up,/ye everlasting doors; and the King of glory shall come in."
30 See the entry "ecelice" in DOE and ASD.
31 See Clemoes, AElfric's Catholic Homilies:The First Series,175,1.69. The Modern English translation is quoted from Thorpe, The Homilies of Anglo-Saxon Church, Volume I,4.
32 See Clemoes, AElfric's Catholic Homilies:The First Series, 482,1.195. "For this Modern English translation, see Thorpe, The Homilies of Anglo-Saxon Church, Volume 1,533.
33 Ibid.
34 See TOE,302.
35 See "end," OED.
36 See the discussion in section 3.1 of Chapter 3.
37 See Clemoes, AElfric's Catholic Homilies:The First Series,303,1.122.
38 See "transitory", "transient", and "temporary" in OED.
39 See TOE,302-303.
40 See DSSPIL,968.
41 For this Modern English translation, see Wallis, Bede:The Reckoning of Time,158.
42 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,145.
43 See the discussion in section 3.2 of this chapter.
44 See "eternal," OED.
45 For Ricoeur's interpretation of the relationship between time and narrative, see Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, Volume I, ix-xii.
46 Tampierova has considered Dream as a typical example of the blend of Christian and Pagan values. See, Tampierova, "The Dream of the Rood-A Blend of Christian and Pagan Values."
47 For a description of this manuscript, see entry no.394 in Ker's Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon,460-464. For a study of the relationship between various texts in this manuscript, see Zacher, Preaching the Converted:The Style and Rhetoric of the Vercelli Book Homilies.
48 See Allen and Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry Volume I The Major Latin Texts in Translation,51. This may not be true since they still list some Latin texts which, they think, are related to Dream.
49 In fact, according to the previous source studies, there are no texts in other Germanic languages dealing with the Crucifixion of Christ. See Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry Ⅱ The Major Germanic and Celtic Texts in Translation.
50 The text of the poem is quoted from Krapp, ASPR Volume Ⅱ The, Vercelli Manuscript,61-65. The translation of the poem is mine unless indicated otherwise. Apart from ASPR, there are several other editions of the poem. For instance, Fulk and Pope edit the poem with the commentary and detailed glossary in Eight Old English Poems, 15-26. The poem has several Modern English translations. For instance, Bradley translates the poem in prose in Anglo-Saxon Poetry,158-163; Kennedy translates the poem in verse in An Anthology of Old English Literature, 144-148. In this dissertation, we translate the poem literally for the purpose of understanding.
51 Beowulf begins with the line "Hwaet! We Gardena in geardagum" (1.1) in which the same exclamative is used.
52 For the oral-formulaic theory, see Lord, The Singer of Tales.
53 For those various criticisms of Dream, two bibliography tools provide the most comprehensive records of the studies. For instance, in the ASE Bibiliography for 2010, there are 8 entries dealing with Dream. OEN Bibliography records 116 entries of studies of Dream from 1973 to 2008.
54 O'Brien O'Keeffe uses the term "ethos" in her discussion of the heroic values and Christian ethics. See O'Brien O'Keeffe, "Heroic values and Christian ethics," 107. Hayden White discusses the meaning of "form" in historical narratives and his central argument is that there is meaning in any narrative form. We follow White's definition of "form" and his interpretation of the meaning of form, though we deal with the form of Old English. See White, The Content of the Form Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, ix-xi.
55 See Kennedy, An Anthology of Old English Literature,147.
56 See Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,163.
57 For Ciaran Carson's translation of the poem, see Delanty and Matto, The Word Exchange:Angl-Saxon Poems in Translation,366-377.
58 See "laen," ASD.
59 See "loan" and "lend" in OED.
60 Ibid.
61 See "transitory" in both OED and ODEE.
62 For this translation, see Liuzza, Beowulf A New Verse Translation,106.
63 Cf. the discussion in Section 4.1 of this chapter.
64 See HE, Book 2, Chapter 10, Page 136, Line 2.
65 The translation is quoted from Miller, The Old English Version ofBede's Ecclesiatical History of the English People.
66 See Appendix C:Christians and Pagans in Liuzza's Beowulf:A New Verse Translation,183-185. Also included in this Appendix are the letters of Gregory the Great and Boniface.
67 The phrase eagan bryhtm occurs once in DOEC. However, there are many cases in which these two words occur in the same context.
68 See the entry of "twinkling" in OED.
69 See Fell, "Perceptions of Transience," 172-89.
70 See Gatch, "Perceptions of eternity," 190-205.
71 See Merriman, The Rhetoric of the End Times in Old English Preaching.
72 Ibid.
73 See Lodge, "Something of a hagiography":Reading narrative in Anglo-Saxon Saints'Lives.
74 In "Monuments and the Past in Early Anglo-Saxon England," Williams discussed the importance of monuments in representing the past in early Anglo-Saxon England, and argued that Anglo-Saxons reused "monuments of earlier period" to contruct their idenity. In the case of Dream, the poet probably employed the Rood as a symbol to construct his perception of time.
75 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,144.
76 For Exeter Book, see Krapp and Dobbie, ASPR Volume 111 The Exeter Book.
77 See the entry "Phoenix" in OED for more description of the mythical bird.
78 See Calder, "The Vision of Paradise:a Symbolic Reading of the Old English Phoenix."
79 Critics focus on whether The Phoenix is a translation of the Latin texts or involves the creativity of the Anglo-Saxon authors.
80 For the English translations of three sources, see Allen and Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry I The Major Latin Texts in Translation,113-120.
81 See J. E. Cross, "The Conception of the Old Englis Phoenix," in Old English Poetry:Fifteen Essays, ed. Robert P. Creed (Providence, R. I.,1967),129-152. Qtd. in Rollinson, "The influence of Christian doctrine on Old English poetry," 274.
82 The text of The Phoenix is quoted from ASPR Volume Ⅲ The Exeter Book,94-113. The poem has several Modern English translations:for prose translation, see Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry,284-303; for a free verse translation, see Kennedy, An Anthology of Old English Literature,102-111; for a complete verse translation, see Hall, Judith, Phoenix, and Other Anglo-Saxon Poems,18-42, and Hall also provides a brief summary for each section of the poem. A more recent translation of part of the poem in verse could be found in Delanty and Matto, The Word Exchange:Anglo-Saxon Poems in Translation,429-434.
83 Apart from Allen and Calder's treatments of the sources and analogues of The Phoenix in Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry I The Major Latin Texts in Translation,113-120, there are several other substantial studies related to this topic. See Gorst, "Latin Sources of the Old English Phoenix." ASE Bibliography lists about 38 entries of studies with relation to The Phoenix. For a detailed list of those studies, refer to ASE Bibliography from 1978 to present.
84 The Latin Physiologus Latinus is quoted in its Modern English translation. The translation is quoted from Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry I The Major Latin Texts in Translation,119.
85 See the discussion of Section 2.1 of Chapter 2.
86 The text of Ambrose's Hexameron is quoted in its Modern English translation. See Allen and Calder, Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry:The Major Latin Texts in Translation,118.
87 Ibid.,119-120.
88 Ibid.
89 See Confessions, Ⅺ,25.
90 For "sense", see Evans, The Structure of Time:Language, Meaning and Temporal Cognition,107-200; for "concern", see Vatsyayan, Concepts of Time:Ancient and Modern, ix-x.
91 For the binary division of time in the early Germanic culture, see Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture,140-141.
92 See Confessions, Ⅺ,25 and Temporum.
93 For this division, see McFarland, "Sacred Time," 1316-1319 and Tomczyk, "Christianity," 181. The latter describes the relation between the sacred and secular time as follows:"In all religious systems worldwide, including Christianity, time is conceived of as the dimension where hierophany, the manifestation of the sacred, takes place. Sacred time is contrasted with secular time. The former entails the works and the manifestation of the sacred, whereas the latter denotes the time of human actions, which are identified with history. Many tensions between sacred and secular time can be listed, the most important of which concerns the passing of time. Sacred time can be personified as a deity (e.g., Cronus or Aion) or may be referred to as the eternal."
94 See Tomczyk, "Christianity," 181.
95 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,144-147.
96 See Delanty and Matto, The Word Exchange:Anglo-Saxon Poems in Translation,27-66.
97 See Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,180.
98 For instance, Fulk and Cain group The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Ruin, etc as elegies in A History of Old English Literature,180. However, other Anglo-Saxonists such as Donoghue do not regard the issue of genre as an important one in the discussion of The Wanderer. See Donoghue, Old English Literature:A Very Short Introduction,47-52.
99 Qtd. in Fulk and Cain, A History of Old English Literature,179.
100 Ibid.
101 For the sources and analogues of Old English elegies, see Calder, etc., Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetry Ⅱ The Major Germanic and Celtic Texts in Translation,23-70.
102 See Section 4.2 of this chapter.
103 For instance, in "Forht and fiegen in The Wanderer and Related Contexts of Anglo-Saxon Warrior Wisdom," Gwara discussed the warrior tradition in the poem.
104 Qtd. in Bullough, "What has Ingeld to do with Lindisfarne?"
105 This point is in controversy.
106 See ASPR Volume III The Exeter Book,134-137.
107 For Bauschatz's discussion, see The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, xi.
108 Ibid.
1 For a detailed elaboration of this assumption, ref. the discussion in Section 1.3 of Chapter 1. The term "mirror" is primarily used by Steven Pinker in his seminal book The Stuff of Thought:Language as a Window into Human Nature. See p. vii-ix.
2 For a detailed discussion of this metaphor, see Section 3.1.
3 See Bauschatz, The Well and the Tree:World and Time in Early Germanic Culture, ⅹⅰ.
4 See Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being:A Study of the History of an Idea,3.
5 Ibid.
6 Pinker, The Stuff of Thought:Language as a Window into Human Nature, vii-viii.
7 Stanley Fish, "The Crisis of the Humanities Officially Arrives", The New York Times 11 October 2010,11 October 2010.
8 Ibid.
9 For the term "digital humanities", see Schreibman etc's A Companion to Digital Humanities, which gives a survey of the development of this field from its origin.
10 Patricia Cohen, "Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities'Riches," The New York Times 17 November 2010, 18 November 2011.
11 For an overview of the application of concordance in literary studies, see Krishnamurthy, "Concordance."
12 See Bessinger and Smith, A Concordance to Beowulf and Bessinger and Smith, A Concordance to the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records.
13 One exception is Sundaram's dissertation The Conceptualisation of Futurity in Old English. Sundaram calculates the frequency of future constructions in DOEC. Sundaram's approach to futurity in Anglo-Saxon is pioneering of its kind. Sauer's article "Time Words and Time Concepts in Anglo-Saxon Prose:Theodulfi Capitula" calculates the occurrences of time words in Theodulfi Capitula, but is not a statistical analysis.
4 For an analysis of genre-distribution of the surviving Old English texts, see DOEC.
15 For the discussion of the Roman antiquity and the Anglo-Saxon perception of it, see Hunter, "Germanic and Roman antiquity and the sense of the past in Anglo-Saxon England."
16 See Mitchell and Robinson, A Guide to Old English,124.
17 The interview is published online. See Priego and O'Donnell, "Bringing Diversity of Experience Together:An Interview with Daniel O'Donnell."
18 See Haven, "Medieval exhibition spotlights Stanford Libraries' manuscript collection."
19 For the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, see Berkhout and Gatch, Anglo-Saxon Scholarship:The First Three Centuries.
20 There is a session on "Cultural, Textual, and Material Heritage in the Digital Age:Projects and Practices" at the twentieth International Medieval Congress to be held in Leeds on 1-4 July 2013 and another session on "New Digital Paradigms in Anglo-Saxon Studies" at the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists (ISAS) to be held in Dublin on July 29th-August 2,2013.
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