摘要
本论文使用定性的研究方法,试图分析肯尼亚公立大学的学术女性在教学、研究、发表、领导以及行政方面的角色和挑战。影响学术女性职业选择的因素包括家庭背景、社会经济和职业发展等。其次,笔者分析了学术女性如何拓展职业生涯、探讨了大学文化及其如何满足她们对学校环境及照顾子女等方面的需求。其次,分析了她们面临的工作与家庭冲突以及文化信念等挑战,讨论了她们采取的策略。
最后,笔者分析了与此相关的政策以及其如何影响肯尼亚公立大学中性别平等；讨论了,女性主义理论是如何影响研究、性别认同；以及相较于西方,非洲女性主义起源的有效性、针对性和非洲大洲是否拥有独特的女性主义理论等问题。
研究表明,家庭背景和社会文化因素在学术女性的教育经历和职业选择中起了非常重要的作用。学术女性遵循不同的职业发展路径,她们中的大多数(89%)最初只是高中老师。几乎没有人一开始就进入学术界。尽管这些学术女性取得了巨大的成就,大学结构也不能很好地支持制度化的工作环境。提及对大学教师发展的支持问题,总体感觉是教师的发展远远没有被关注。
尽管大学的高层领导中学术女性所占比例极少,如,校长、副校长和常务副校长中女性比例不到10%,但学术女性参与管理可以推进大学行政与管理公平。有的学术女性发表了20多篇论文。但是由于非洲的研究资金不足以及学术期刊数量少,所以论文发表和研究没有得到足够的重视。鼓励更多女性选择学术职业的指导也不是制度化的,而是比较分散和零星的。
最后,学术女性在求知、工作、学术生产以及角色冲突中遇到各种各样的障碍和挑战。她们采取大量的策略来确保她们在家庭和学术角色的平衡。她们采取的主要策略包括时间管理、团队协作和自我实现。国家目前制定了一些政策,但问题有两个方面：一方面是大部分学术女性并没有必须的资格来确保她们在这些职位上有竞争优势；另一个方面,有些男领导希望维持现状。
尽管学术女性已经有很好的表现,但她们仍需要在发表、领导、合作以及指导方面更加努力。要采取措施来让更多年轻女性选择学术职业,还要监督政策的运行过程和贯彻落实情况。
The dissertation uses qualitative case study approach to analyze roles and challenges of women academics in Kenyan public universities in terms of teaching, research and publication, leadership and administration. Factors that encouraged women academics to join academe were also discussed in light of family background, socio-economic and career development. Secondly, it analyzes how they managed to advance through their career. The university culture and how inclusive it is to cater for the needs of these women academics in terms of university culture and availability of child-care services is also discussed. Next, challenges facing these women academics are analyzed in terms of family and work related conflicts, and the influence of cultural beliefs. The strategies that the women academics apply to effectively perform their duties are also discussed.
The researcher also traces the historical development of Kenyan education system from the pre-colonial era to the present. This helps to situate the current trend of gender inequality in education in a historical perspective and helps explain that the current inequality is a reflection of the past gender imbalance practices. Finally, gender related policies and how they have influenced gender equity in public universities in Kenya are also analyzed. Feminist theories were analyzed in terms of how they influence research and gender identities, and the validity and pertinence of these theories as they originate from the West in comparison to the African feminism and whether Africa as a continent has feminist theories specific to the characteristics of Africa.
The research revealed that family background and socio-cultural factors played a very important role in the choice of these women academics in terms of the way they were socialized through schooling and role models. The women academics followed different paths for career advancement, though majority of them (89%) started their career as teachers in high school. None of them started her first career as an academia. Despite the drastic achievement made by these women academics, the university structure is not very supportive in terms of institutional working environment, though when it comes to support for academic development, there is a mixed reaction with the majority feeling that little is being done as far as faculty staff development is concerned.
A nationwide comparative analysis of women academics illustrates that they have minimal representation in administration and management of public universities; with a bare minimal representation in the top most university leadership like Chancellors, Vice-Chancellors and deputy Vice-Chancellors with just less than10%of the total leadership representations. The research revealed that the women academics are actively involved in teaching, research and publication; with some of them having at least a maximum of up to20publications including books and journal articles. Though, there is a general concern among the women academics that publication and research is still not being given the maximum attention it deserves due to lack of funding for research and few African journals where they can publish their work. It also revealed that mentoring is not institutionalized but is rather sporadic. Despite its low prevalence rate, it has encouraged relatively more women to join academia.
Lastly, women academics are facing several challenges and barriers like advancing knowledge, work related challenges, research productivity, and role conflicts. They have applied numerous strategies to ensure that they remain relevant both in the family and academic circles. The major strategies they apply include time management, collaboration and self fulfillment. There are laid down policies but the problem are two faceted:first, majority of the women academics do not have the necessary qualifications to enable them effectively have competitive advantage for those posts and secondly, there are some male leaders who want to maintain the status quo.
The women academics have made in-roads but they still need to work much harder in terms of publications, leadership, collaboration and mentorship. Measures should be taken to ensure that more young ladies are encouraged to join academia. There should also be laid down procedures of monitoring the existing policies to ensure that they are implemented accordingly. Majority of women academics are lone rangers and are lacking collaborative culture; they therefore need to enhance a collaborative and multi-dimensional approaches with both their male and female colleagues to achieve to the highest of their potentials since they cannot operate in isolation.
引文
① New Constitution of Kenya,2010, Chapter Seventeen, Section 175(c)
② Los Angeles Times (2010). KENYA:Nobel Peace Laureate Wangari Maathai dies.
⑧ Moi University Web:http://www.mu.ac.ke/,accessed on October,2013 at 9.30a.m.
④ Caroline Wafula.Sunday Daily Nation,10th March,2013:17,bottom column.
⑤ New Constitution,2010, Chapter 1, Article 27(3-8), pp.25-26.
0 New Constitution,2010, Chapter 17, Article 175 (c), p.114
⑦ The Standard newspaper of 7th March 2008
⑧ The Standard on Saturday March,2,2013,2
⑨ Saturday Nation March,2,2013,2
⑩ Studies indicated that women in Kenya have played central role in the survival of families, yet they are significantly underrepresented in public life; with some few holding high office or positions of prominence in politics and society (BIT,2003). Source: http://www.bti-proiect.org/fileadmin/Inhalte/reports/2003/pdf/BTI%202003%20Kenva,pdf;Accessed on: 2014/02/26.
11 Standard on Saturday, March 2,2013,11
12 Saturday Nation, March 2,2013,2
13 The Standard, August 4th,2013; second row, page 11.'Family Finance:Educating your spouse is a sound investment.
14 The Standard, August 4th,2013; second row, page 11.'Family Finance:Educating your spouse is a sound investment.
15 Public & Private Universities in Kenya,61,151
16 The Carnegie Commission of the United States of America gives the objectives of higher education to include: (a) the provision of opportunities for the intellectual, aesthetic, ethical and skill development to individual students, and the provision of campus environments which can constructively assist students in their more general development growth; (b) the advancement of human capability in society at large; (c) the enlargement of educational facilities for post secondary groups; (d) the transmission of advancement of learning and wisdom; and (e) the critical evaluation of society through individual thought and persuasion, for the sake of the society's self renewal. Kenyan education objectives are basically derived from this with some alterations to suit the Kenyan situation and perhaps leaving out some phrases which could have been of greater benefit to the people (New Constitution of Kenya,2010).
17 Gupta and Sharma (2003), uses the term'patrifocality' to refer to kinship and family structures and ideology that gives precedence to men over women, and includes:subordination of individual to family; patrilineal inheritance,'patrifocal' descent and residence that reinforces the centrality of males; gender-differentiated family roles patriarchal authority structures; regulation of female behaviors; marriage system, including dowry; and ideology emphasizing women's chastity and subservience (Gupta and Sharma,2003,179-180; Gupta and Sharma, 2002,902). The Kenyan highly patriarchal society is almost leaning towards this Indian culture.
18 In Australia, the 1988 policy paper, Higher Education, requires higher education institutions to develop 'educational profiles' that describe their strengths in teaching and research. The federal government and the institutions are using performance indicators to distribute resources. These indicators include:number of publications, number of research grants, and number of PhD graduates, Ingrid,1988.
19 Wiley Online Library:Women's Status in Higher Education.(Wileyonlinelibrary.com)*DOI.10.1002/ache.3701,1
20 CCT Program, China Insight, live broadcast on 21.09.2012 at 17.30 p.m.
21 http://www.healthpolicyinitiative.com/Publications/Documents/10211_PEP_report_FINAL_1_26_10_acc.pdf
22 The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women:Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action. Beijing, China- September 1995:Action for Equality, Development and Peace. Accessed on 04/11/2013:http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/educa.htm
Spieldoch, Alexandra (2013). Gender Equity in the Post-2015 Development Agenda. Published by the Heinrich Bdll Stiftung, Washington D.C. http://www.boell.org/downloads/Spieldoch_Gender_and_Sustainable_Development.pdf p3;Accessed on 11/10/2013
24 The World Bank Group, Africa Region on Gender, available from http://worldbank.org.aftdr/bp/GENDER/gendtest.htm;cited in Kiplagat,2008:25
25 UN Economic and Social Council pop/973:Commission on Population and Development, Forty-second Session 5th and 6th meetings (AM & PM) http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/pop973.doc.htm
26 Ibid
27 United Nations Committee on Human Rights, General Comment 18 on Non-discrimination, Paragraph 10 http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/3888b0541f8501c9c12563ed004b8d0e?Opendocument
28 "The EU's Boardroom Quota Battle is Over, But Women Cannot Yet Rest." http://www.forbes.com/sites/insead/2012/11/19/the-eus-boardroom-quota-battle-is-over-but-women-cannot-yet-res t/
29 Manyala (2007); cited in Wangare, Boit, & Magero (2009). Affirmative Action:A Kenyan Case, Munich, GRIN Publishing GmbH:http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/184461/affirmative-action-a-kenyan-case
30 Vision 2030:http://www.vision2030.go.ke/index.php/pillars/project/Social/42
31 Otieno, Wycliffe, Haregot, Aster and Yokozeki, Yumiko (2007). Gender Audit of Education Programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda. UNICEF, Eastern and Southern Africa Region, p. ix
32 While Kenya has the highest GDP per capita (795 US$) in the EAC, it has not made it to the category of middle-income countries with a per capita above US$1,000, which includes 22 African countries. Though, Kenya's middle class is growing fast and currently is estimated at 10% of the population (UNESCO,2014). The Bertelsmann Transformation Index (2003) indicated that the economic and social situation in Kenya has deteriorated from Independence to the early 2000; and that women were more active in informal employment sectors with virtually no social security coverage (BTI,2003). Source: http://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/Inhalte/reports/2003/pdf/BTI%202003%20Kenya.pdf Accessed on 2014/02/26.
33 According to recent report, out of the estimated labor force of 18.39 million in 2011, only 2.127 million or 11.5% are waged employees in the formal sector. Women only accounts for 30% of employees in the modern private sector and about 8.3 million are thought to work in the large informal sector with a greater number of women confined in non-paying occupations (UNESCO Country Report, Kenya,2014:2). Source:http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/esa/ken#chap6. accessed on 2014/02/26.
34 Recently, an article appeared in one of the dailies that,'Though the government took a bold step in expanding access to higher education by commissioning more institutions of higher learning or universities in recent years, little has been done to attract highly-qualified lecturers. Quick audit of the academic programs reveals that most of their faculties and departments are over-burdened, with close to none of their staff members boasting PhDs (Ogenga',2013).
35 Women in Science (2014), In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from httn://www.britannica.com/EBcheckered/tonic/1725191/Women-in-Science
36 In her acceptance speech of the 1929 Pictorial Review Annual Achievement Award, when she retorted:"It matters little whether men or women have the more brains; all we women need to do to exert our proper influence is just to use all the brains we have" (Encyclopedia Britannica,2014).
37 Ingrid (1988) in his research, supports (Trow,1984), and illustrates some of the most conditions that the Australian research universities should adhere to, and these include:(a) having to provide the resources for staff to conduct advanced research and teaching; (b) having discretionary funds from research grants and contracts, and sufficient autonomy over expenditure to influence the internal climate in favor of innovation and creativity and to enable them invite visiting scholars, thus enhancing their status and available expertise.
38 Gupta and Sharma investigated how the structure and ideology of the patriarchal life in India affect the lives and careers of highly educated women in science and they revealed that over 15 percent of their respondents were single. According to their findings the reasons for these academic women deciding to remain single were varied and included:(a) the respondents themselves were against the marriage; (b) they could not find an equally qualified young man; (c) they were not able to give dowry; and (d) a suitable match of the respondent's choice could not be found (Gupta and Sharma,2003:280,290-291).
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