美国对印尼的军事教育培训援助:内容、目标与成效
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摘要
作为美国对外军事教育培训援助的关键组成部分,国际军事教育与训练项目(International Military Education and Training Program)由国务院主导,国防安全合作局和国防部共同管理,向盟友和友好国家提供美式军事培训与教育课程。该项目创始于20世纪60年代,发展至今已具有相对完备的法律体系、组织机构及运转模式,体现了美国在对外安全援助领域的创新。基于印度尼西亚的战略价值,美国对其开展的军事教育与训练项目主要围绕人权问题、民主化改革和反恐合作三大议题,以双方认同为基础密切军事联系,以核心人物和利益集团为重点深化美国影响,目光长远、潜移默化地进行思想熏陶并建构"美式认同",推动了美国对印尼政治外交战略的实现,充分体现了对外军事教育培训援助对于实现援助国对外战略的重要意义。
As a vital part of foreign military education and training aid, the U.S. International Military Education and Training Program(IMET) is led by the Department of State and co-managed by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency and the Ministry of Defense. It aims at providing American military training and education courses to allies and friendly countries. The IMET program was founded in the 1960s and has developed a relatively complete legal system, organizational structure and operational mode, reflecting the innovation in the field of foreign security assistance. Based on the strategic value of Indonesia, the U.S. IMET program towards it mainly focuses on the three major issues: human rights, democratization reforms and anti-terrorism cooperation. Besides, resting upon the mutual recognition of the two sides, the IMET program focuses on the core interest groups in Indonesia and puts emphasis on long-term and imperceptible ideological edification and building "American identity" to promote the development of Indonesia's military education and training programs. As a result, it plays an important role as the foreign military education and training aid in achieving the foreign strategic goals of the donor country.
As a vital part of foreign military education and training aid, the U.S. International Military Education and Training Program(IMET) is led by the Department of State and co-managed by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency and the Ministry of Defense. It aims at providing American military training and education courses to allies and friendly countries. The IMET program was founded in the 1960s and has developed a relatively complete legal system, organizational structure and operational mode, reflecting the innovation in the field of foreign security assistance. Based on the strategic value of Indonesia, the U.S. IMET program towards it mainly focuses on the three major issues: human rights, democratization reforms and anti-terrorism cooperation. Besides, resting upon the mutual recognition of the two sides, the IMET program focuses on the core interest groups in Indonesia and puts emphasis on long-term and imperceptible ideological edification and building "American identity" to promote the development of Indonesia's military education and training programs. As a result, it plays an important role as the foreign military education and training aid in achieving the foreign strategic goals of the donor country.
引文
[1] Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs,U.S.Relations With Indonesia,U.S.DoS,August 14,2018,https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2748.htm.
[2] Bruce Vaughn,Indonesia:Domestic Politics,Strategic Dynamics,and U.S.Interests,CRS Report for Congress,January 31,2011,pp.33-34,https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc689391/.
[3] CIA,The World Factbook 2018,July 2018,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/download/download-2018/index.html.
[4] USAID,Water And Development Strategy 2013-2018,August 2018,p.3,https://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/water-and-sanitation/us-global-water-strategy.
[5] Prashanth Parameswaran,“What Did Pence' s Indonesia Visit Achieve?”,The Diplomat,April 22,2017,https://thediplomat.com/2017/04/what-did-pences-indonesia-visit-achieve/.
[6] 翟崑:《1997年东亚金融危机后美国对印尼民主化进程的干预》,《外交评论》2005年第4期,第152页。
[7] The White House,The National Security Strategy of the United States of America,December 2017,p.25,https://www.whitehouse.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf.
[8] 蔡劲松:《美国对外军事援助研究》,中共中央党校国际战略研究所博士学位论文,2014年7月,第25页。
[9] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,Volume I,The Description of Programs-Page II-1,https://defenseoversight.wola.org/primarydocs/fmtr_2017.pdf.
[10][11] GPO,International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act,SEC541,p.4;SEC543,p.5,https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg729.pdf.
[12] The White House,Committee on International Relations,Security Assistance Act of 1976,H.R.11963,94th Congr.,1976,https://www.congress.gov/bill/94th-congress/house-bill/11963 q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22H.R.+11963%2C+94th.%2C+1976%2C%22%5D%7D&r=2.
[13] The Senate-Committee on International Relations,Committee on Foreign Relations,The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,as amended SEC.543.(3),http://www.atlascorps.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/faa.pdf.
[14] The Senate-Committee on Foreign Relations,International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985,https://www.congress.gov/bill/99th-congress/senate-bill/960.
[15] One Hundred Sixth Congress of the United States of America,at the second session,Begun and held at the City,January 24,2000,https://fas.org/asmp/resources/govern/hr4919-pl.html.
[16] The Senate and House of Representatives in Congress,The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,as amended SEC.543.(2),p.199,https://www.usaid.gov/ads/policy/faa.
[17] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,p.14,https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265162.pdf.
[18] DSCA,Security Assistance Management Manual (SAMM),chapter 10,p.25,http://www.samm.dsca.mil/chapter/chapter-10.
[19] 杜飞:《“预防性防御”美国“国际军事教育与训练”项目介述》,《高等教育研究学报》2015年第1期,第52页。
[20] 张小健:《美国对外军事培训特点分析》,《军队政工理论研究》2016年第6期,第135页。
[21] 甄帅:《美国国际军事教育与培训计划研究》,华东师范大学硕士论文,2013年5月,第8页。
[22] United States Code,2010 Edition Title 22-Foreign Relations and Intercourse,chapter 32-Foriegn Assistance,Sec.2420-Police training prohibition,https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title22/html/USCODE-2010-title22-chap32-subchapIII-partIII-sec2420.htm.
[23][30] DSCA,Security Assistance Management Manual (SAMM),chapter10,C10.6.4.4,C10.11,http://www.discs.dsca.mil/pages/itm/.
[24][46] John B.Haseman,Eduardo Lachica,“The U.S.-Indonesia Security Relationship:The Next Steps”,the United States-Indonesia Society,January 2009,p.10,p.14,http://usindo.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/HASEMAN-LACHICA-BOOK-Final.pdf.
[25] 王琛:《1975年东帝汶危机中美国对印尼的政策——基于美国解密外交档案的分析》,《东南亚研究》2017年第3期,第99页。
[26] Indonesia and U.S.Military Ties Briefing,Jakarta/Washington/Brussels,July 17,2001,pp.4-5,https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/28114/b007_indonesian-us_military_ties.pdf.
[27] J.Lobe,“US paves way for new Indonesia military ties”,The Asia Times,January 28,2005,http://www.atimes.com/tag/southeast-asia/.
[28] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report,Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,The Volume I-Section IV-Part IV-II-East Asia and Pacific,p.15,https://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rpt/fmtrpt/2017/index.htm.
[29] GAO,International Military Education and Training Agencies Should Emphasize Human Rights Training and Improve Evaluations,October 2011,p.12,https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-12-123.
[31][39] Richard F.Grimmett,International Military Education and Training Program,CRS Report for Congress,October 28,2004,pp.5-6,http://link.sandiego.edu/portal/International-Military-Education-and-Training/dcdT9-gcqAs/.
[32] [美]罗德著:《巧笑的将军——印度尼西亚总统苏哈托》,厦门大学南洋研究所编译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年,第152页。
[33] Max Walden,Democracy in Indonesia:A cause for celebration,February 2017,https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/democracy-indonesia-cause-celebration.
[34] Joshua Kurlantzick,“Keeping the U.S.-Indonesia Relationship Moving Forward”,Council Special Report,No.81 (February 2018),p.8,https://www.cfr.org/report/keeping-us-indonesia-relationship-moving-forward.
[35] Andi Alimuddin,Seniwati,The United States-Indonesian Military Relationship in Countering Terrorism In Indonesia,Proceedings of 23rd IASTEM International Conference,Copenhagen,Denmark,June 28,2016,p.12,http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/14-287-147488197089-94.pdf.
[36] Jason Tedjasukmana,“In Indonesia,Corruption Scandals Plague Anti-Graft President”,The Time,September 26,2011,http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2094188,00.html.
[37] Randall Schriver,Testimony on American Leadership in the Asia-Pacific,May 15,2018,p.3,https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/051518_Schriver_Testimony.pdf.
[38] David Shambaugh,“U.S.Relations with Southeast Asia in 2018:More Continuity Than Change”,Trends in Southeast Asia,No.18,2018,https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/us-relations-with-southeast-asia-in-2018/9EA5305BD5E162655F552C750CF59000.
[40] Juwono Sudarsono,Michael S.Malley and Sri Hartati Suradijono,Expanding and Strengthening the United States -Indonesia Security Partnership:The Military Education Component,International Relations,University of Indonesia,http://www.usindo.org/events/expanding-and-strengthening-the-united-states-indonesia-security-partnership-the-military-education-component/.
[41] Oleg Korovin,Jennifer Sim and Joann Saw,Defence Diplomacy in Southeast Asia,Conference Report,Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies Nanyang Technological University,2010,p.12,https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ER101130_Defence_Diplomacy_SEA.pdf.
[42] The White House,Joint Statement by the United States of America and the Republic of Indonesia,Office of the Press and Secretary For immediate release,October 26,2015,https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/10/26/joint-statement-united-states-america-and-republic-indonesia.
[43] Murray Hiebert,Ted Osius and Gregory B.Poling,A U.S.-Indonesia:Partnership for 2020-Recommendations for Forging a 21st Century Relationship,September 2013,pp.11-12,https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/publication/130917_Hiebert_USIndonesiaPartnership_WEB.pdf.
[44] Abigail A.Walton,“Indonesia after Suharto”,Foreign Policy In Focus,November 1,1998,http://fpif.org/indonesia_after_suharto/.
[45] Indonesian Military Reforms Fail to Get U.S.Attention,Open Forum with Colonel John Haseman (Former Defense Attache,U.S.Embassy in Jakarta),February 6,2008,http://www.usindo.org/briefs/indonesian-military-reforms-fail-to-get-u-s-attention/.
[47] The White House,“A New National Security Strategy for a New Era”,National Security & Defense,December 18,2017,https://www.whitehouse.gov/articles/new-national-security-strategy-new-era/.
[48] Frega Wenas Inkiriwang,The New Chapter of the United States-Indonesia Defense Relations:Reengagement Through IMET,the U.S.Army Command and General Staff College,Fort Leavenworth,Kansas,January 2013,p.76,http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA589879.
[49] Jesse Truesdale,Fort Leavenworth honors president of Indonesia,September 12,2005,p.45,http://www.basehorinfo.com/news/2005/sep/12/fort_leavenworth_honors_president_indonesia/.
[50] Antara,“SBY attends Harvard University Forum”,Jakarta Post,September 29,2009,https://23.253.57.128/blog/story/2009/09/sby-attends-harvard-university-forum.
[51] Cheryl Pellerin,“Hagel Talks to Indonesian Soldiers About Education,Training”,DoD News,August 27,2013,http://www.dsca.mil/news-media/news-archive/hagel-talks-indonesian-soldiers-about-education-training.
(1)特殊情况指由国防安全合作局特别授权。
(2)例外情况指国防安全合作局依据个人资料或其所属单位性质,准许某些警察部队或执法部队人员参加IMET项目。
(3)全称Joint Combined Exchange Training,该项目始于20世纪70年代,是美军特种部队与受援国军队和警察开展的一种短期培训项目,目的是让受援国军警熟悉美军特种部队的技战术特点和行动方式,从而能更有效地开展联合行动。
(4)IMET-1是一年资金项目。每年9月30日前由国务院国外业务部根据相关计划拨款法(FOA)制定。另外还有IMET-2和IMET--X项目。
(5)“人数”反映了按照特定程度接受军事教育培训的印尼国际学员人数。如该学员在此程度下参加了多个培训课程,则只计算一次。
(6)“课程数量”反映了在该程度下美国提供的课程数量,依据已知开始/结束日期的课程计算。
(7)印尼语为Dwifungsi,即军队在社会中扮演了职业军事力量和社会政治力量的双重角色。
[2] Bruce Vaughn,Indonesia:Domestic Politics,Strategic Dynamics,and U.S.Interests,CRS Report for Congress,January 31,2011,pp.33-34,https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc689391/.
[3] CIA,The World Factbook 2018,July 2018,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/download/download-2018/index.html.
[4] USAID,Water And Development Strategy 2013-2018,August 2018,p.3,https://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/water-and-sanitation/us-global-water-strategy.
[5] Prashanth Parameswaran,“What Did Pence' s Indonesia Visit Achieve?”,The Diplomat,April 22,2017,https://thediplomat.com/2017/04/what-did-pences-indonesia-visit-achieve/.
[6] 翟崑:《1997年东亚金融危机后美国对印尼民主化进程的干预》,《外交评论》2005年第4期,第152页。
[7] The White House,The National Security Strategy of the United States of America,December 2017,p.25,https://www.whitehouse.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf.
[8] 蔡劲松:《美国对外军事援助研究》,中共中央党校国际战略研究所博士学位论文,2014年7月,第25页。
[9] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,Volume I,The Description of Programs-Page II-1,https://defenseoversight.wola.org/primarydocs/fmtr_2017.pdf.
[10][11] GPO,International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act,SEC541,p.4;SEC543,p.5,https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg729.pdf.
[12] The White House,Committee on International Relations,Security Assistance Act of 1976,H.R.11963,94th Congr.,1976,https://www.congress.gov/bill/94th-congress/house-bill/11963 q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22H.R.+11963%2C+94th.%2C+1976%2C%22%5D%7D&r=2.
[13] The Senate-Committee on International Relations,Committee on Foreign Relations,The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,as amended SEC.543.(3),http://www.atlascorps.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/faa.pdf.
[14] The Senate-Committee on Foreign Relations,International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985,https://www.congress.gov/bill/99th-congress/senate-bill/960.
[15] One Hundred Sixth Congress of the United States of America,at the second session,Begun and held at the City,January 24,2000,https://fas.org/asmp/resources/govern/hr4919-pl.html.
[16] The Senate and House of Representatives in Congress,The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,as amended SEC.543.(2),p.199,https://www.usaid.gov/ads/policy/faa.
[17] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,p.14,https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265162.pdf.
[18] DSCA,Security Assistance Management Manual (SAMM),chapter 10,p.25,http://www.samm.dsca.mil/chapter/chapter-10.
[19] 杜飞:《“预防性防御”美国“国际军事教育与训练”项目介述》,《高等教育研究学报》2015年第1期,第52页。
[20] 张小健:《美国对外军事培训特点分析》,《军队政工理论研究》2016年第6期,第135页。
[21] 甄帅:《美国国际军事教育与培训计划研究》,华东师范大学硕士论文,2013年5月,第8页。
[22] United States Code,2010 Edition Title 22-Foreign Relations and Intercourse,chapter 32-Foriegn Assistance,Sec.2420-Police training prohibition,https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title22/html/USCODE-2010-title22-chap32-subchapIII-partIII-sec2420.htm.
[23][30] DSCA,Security Assistance Management Manual (SAMM),chapter10,C10.6.4.4,C10.11,http://www.discs.dsca.mil/pages/itm/.
[24][46] John B.Haseman,Eduardo Lachica,“The U.S.-Indonesia Security Relationship:The Next Steps”,the United States-Indonesia Society,January 2009,p.10,p.14,http://usindo.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/HASEMAN-LACHICA-BOOK-Final.pdf.
[25] 王琛:《1975年东帝汶危机中美国对印尼的政策——基于美国解密外交档案的分析》,《东南亚研究》2017年第3期,第99页。
[26] Indonesia and U.S.Military Ties Briefing,Jakarta/Washington/Brussels,July 17,2001,pp.4-5,https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/28114/b007_indonesian-us_military_ties.pdf.
[27] J.Lobe,“US paves way for new Indonesia military ties”,The Asia Times,January 28,2005,http://www.atimes.com/tag/southeast-asia/.
[28] Department of Defense,Department of State,Foreign Military Training Report,Fiscal Years 2016 and 2017,Joint Report to Congress,The Volume I-Section IV-Part IV-II-East Asia and Pacific,p.15,https://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rpt/fmtrpt/2017/index.htm.
[29] GAO,International Military Education and Training Agencies Should Emphasize Human Rights Training and Improve Evaluations,October 2011,p.12,https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-12-123.
[31][39] Richard F.Grimmett,International Military Education and Training Program,CRS Report for Congress,October 28,2004,pp.5-6,http://link.sandiego.edu/portal/International-Military-Education-and-Training/dcdT9-gcqAs/.
[32] [美]罗德著:《巧笑的将军——印度尼西亚总统苏哈托》,厦门大学南洋研究所编译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年,第152页。
[33] Max Walden,Democracy in Indonesia:A cause for celebration,February 2017,https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/democracy-indonesia-cause-celebration.
[34] Joshua Kurlantzick,“Keeping the U.S.-Indonesia Relationship Moving Forward”,Council Special Report,No.81 (February 2018),p.8,https://www.cfr.org/report/keeping-us-indonesia-relationship-moving-forward.
[35] Andi Alimuddin,Seniwati,The United States-Indonesian Military Relationship in Countering Terrorism In Indonesia,Proceedings of 23rd IASTEM International Conference,Copenhagen,Denmark,June 28,2016,p.12,http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/14-287-147488197089-94.pdf.
[36] Jason Tedjasukmana,“In Indonesia,Corruption Scandals Plague Anti-Graft President”,The Time,September 26,2011,http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2094188,00.html.
[37] Randall Schriver,Testimony on American Leadership in the Asia-Pacific,May 15,2018,p.3,https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/051518_Schriver_Testimony.pdf.
[38] David Shambaugh,“U.S.Relations with Southeast Asia in 2018:More Continuity Than Change”,Trends in Southeast Asia,No.18,2018,https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/us-relations-with-southeast-asia-in-2018/9EA5305BD5E162655F552C750CF59000.
[40] Juwono Sudarsono,Michael S.Malley and Sri Hartati Suradijono,Expanding and Strengthening the United States -Indonesia Security Partnership:The Military Education Component,International Relations,University of Indonesia,http://www.usindo.org/events/expanding-and-strengthening-the-united-states-indonesia-security-partnership-the-military-education-component/.
[41] Oleg Korovin,Jennifer Sim and Joann Saw,Defence Diplomacy in Southeast Asia,Conference Report,Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies Nanyang Technological University,2010,p.12,https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ER101130_Defence_Diplomacy_SEA.pdf.
[42] The White House,Joint Statement by the United States of America and the Republic of Indonesia,Office of the Press and Secretary For immediate release,October 26,2015,https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/10/26/joint-statement-united-states-america-and-republic-indonesia.
[43] Murray Hiebert,Ted Osius and Gregory B.Poling,A U.S.-Indonesia:Partnership for 2020-Recommendations for Forging a 21st Century Relationship,September 2013,pp.11-12,https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/publication/130917_Hiebert_USIndonesiaPartnership_WEB.pdf.
[44] Abigail A.Walton,“Indonesia after Suharto”,Foreign Policy In Focus,November 1,1998,http://fpif.org/indonesia_after_suharto/.
[45] Indonesian Military Reforms Fail to Get U.S.Attention,Open Forum with Colonel John Haseman (Former Defense Attache,U.S.Embassy in Jakarta),February 6,2008,http://www.usindo.org/briefs/indonesian-military-reforms-fail-to-get-u-s-attention/.
[47] The White House,“A New National Security Strategy for a New Era”,National Security & Defense,December 18,2017,https://www.whitehouse.gov/articles/new-national-security-strategy-new-era/.
[48] Frega Wenas Inkiriwang,The New Chapter of the United States-Indonesia Defense Relations:Reengagement Through IMET,the U.S.Army Command and General Staff College,Fort Leavenworth,Kansas,January 2013,p.76,http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA589879.
[49] Jesse Truesdale,Fort Leavenworth honors president of Indonesia,September 12,2005,p.45,http://www.basehorinfo.com/news/2005/sep/12/fort_leavenworth_honors_president_indonesia/.
[50] Antara,“SBY attends Harvard University Forum”,Jakarta Post,September 29,2009,https://23.253.57.128/blog/story/2009/09/sby-attends-harvard-university-forum.
[51] Cheryl Pellerin,“Hagel Talks to Indonesian Soldiers About Education,Training”,DoD News,August 27,2013,http://www.dsca.mil/news-media/news-archive/hagel-talks-indonesian-soldiers-about-education-training.
(1)特殊情况指由国防安全合作局特别授权。
(2)例外情况指国防安全合作局依据个人资料或其所属单位性质,准许某些警察部队或执法部队人员参加IMET项目。
(3)全称Joint Combined Exchange Training,该项目始于20世纪70年代,是美军特种部队与受援国军队和警察开展的一种短期培训项目,目的是让受援国军警熟悉美军特种部队的技战术特点和行动方式,从而能更有效地开展联合行动。
(4)IMET-1是一年资金项目。每年9月30日前由国务院国外业务部根据相关计划拨款法(FOA)制定。另外还有IMET-2和IMET--X项目。
(5)“人数”反映了按照特定程度接受军事教育培训的印尼国际学员人数。如该学员在此程度下参加了多个培训课程,则只计算一次。
(6)“课程数量”反映了在该程度下美国提供的课程数量,依据已知开始/结束日期的课程计算。
(7)印尼语为Dwifungsi,即军队在社会中扮演了职业军事力量和社会政治力量的双重角色。