受助者结果类型对亲社会表现的影响:成人与儿童的对比研究
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摘要
亲社会表现是指人们在社会交往中表现出来的谦让、帮助、合作、分享等行为,其影响机制受到广泛关注。本文通过两个研究(分别以大学生和二、四、六年级小学生为研究对象)探讨了受助者结果类型(受助者获得积极结果vs.受助者避免消极结果)对亲社会表现的影响。结果显示:(1)受助者避免消极结果条件比受助者获得积极结果条件诱发成人更高的亲社会意愿和行为;(2)六年级儿童帮助他人避免消极结果的亲社会意愿更强、情绪更积极;(3)相对于帮助他人避免消极结果,二年级儿童更倾向于帮助他人获得积极结果。这些结果说明受助者结果类型影响个体的亲社会表现(包括亲社会行为、亲社会意愿、亲社会情绪),并且这种影响因成人和儿童有所不同:成人和年长儿童表现出亲社会损失规避现象,年幼儿童则表现出相反效应。
Prosocial performance refers to a broad category of actions that benefit other people or the society. The mechanisms underlying prosocial performance is a hot topic. Compared with other factors that affect prosocial performance,prosocial outcomes relatively received less attention. This research explored the effects of the recipient's outcomes( prosocial gains vs. prosocial non-losses) and age on prosocial performance. The results revealed that,( 1) for adults,prosocial non-losses induced more prosocial performance than prosocial gains;( 2) for Grade six children,the prosocial willingness to help others avoid negative outcomes was stronger;( 3) Grade two children were more willing to help others gain positive outcomes. These results suggest that the recipient's outcomes produced an effect on prosocial performance,and only adults and old children exhibit prosocial loss aversion.
Prosocial performance refers to a broad category of actions that benefit other people or the society. The mechanisms underlying prosocial performance is a hot topic. Compared with other factors that affect prosocial performance,prosocial outcomes relatively received less attention. This research explored the effects of the recipient's outcomes( prosocial gains vs. prosocial non-losses) and age on prosocial performance. The results revealed that,( 1) for adults,prosocial non-losses induced more prosocial performance than prosocial gains;( 2) for Grade six children,the prosocial willingness to help others avoid negative outcomes was stronger;( 3) Grade two children were more willing to help others gain positive outcomes. These results suggest that the recipient's outcomes produced an effect on prosocial performance,and only adults and old children exhibit prosocial loss aversion.
引文
Batson,C.D.,Dyck,J.L.,Brandt,J.R.,Batson,J.G.,Powell,A.L.,Mc Master,M.R.,&Griffitt,C.(1988).Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,55(1),52-77.
Coté,S.,Tremblay,R.E.,Nagin,D.,Zoccolillo,M.,&Vitaro,F.(2002).The development of impulsivity,fearfulness,and helpfulness during childhood:Patterns of consistency and change in the trajectories of boys and girls.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,43(5),609-618.
Dunfield,K.A.(2014).A construct divided:prosocial behavior as helping,sharing,and comforting subtypes.Frontiers in Psychology,5(3),958.
Gneezy,A.,Imas,A.,Brown,A.,Nelson,L.D.,&Norton,M.I.(2012).Paying to be nice:Consistency and costly prosocial behavior.Management Science,58(1),179-187.
Grant,A.,&Dutton,J.(2012).Beneficiary or benefactor,are people more prosocial when they reflect on receiving or giving?Psychological Science,23(9),1033-1039.
Harbaugh,W.T.,Krause,K.,&Vesterlund,L.(2002).Risk attitudes of children and adults:Choices over small and large probability gains and losses.Experimental Economics,5(1),53-84.
Higgins,E.T.(1998).Promotion and prevention:Regulatory focus as a motivational principle.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,30(2),1-46.
Idson,L.C.,Liberman,N.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Imagining how you’d feel:The role of motivational experiences from regulatory fit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30(7),926-937.
Imuta,K.,Henry,J.D.,Slaughter,V.,Selcuk,B.,&Ruffman,T.(2016).Theory of mind and prosocial behavior in childhood:A metaanalytic review.Developmental Psychology,52(8),1192-1205.
Kahneman,D.,&Tversky,A.(1979).Prospect theory:An analysis of decision under risk.Econometrica:Journal of the Econometric Society,47(2),263-292.
Kahneman,D.,&Miller,D.T.(1986).Norm theory:Comparing reality to its alternatives.Psychological Review,93(2),136-153.
Levin,I.P.,&Hart,S.S.(2003).Risk preferences in young children:Early evidence of individual differences in reaction to potential gains and losses.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making,16(5),397-413.
Li,Y.J.,Kenrick,D.T.,Griskevicius,V.,&Neuberg,S.L.(2012).Economic decision biases and fundamental motivations:How mating and self-protection alter loss aversion.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,102(3),550-561.
Liberman,N.,Idson,L.C.,&Higgins,E.T.(2005).Predicting the intensity of losses vs.non-gains and non-losses vs.gains in judging fairness and value:A test of the loss aversion explanation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,41(5),527-534.
Mc Graw,A.P.,Larsen,J.T.,Kahneman,D.,&Schkade,D.(2010).Comparing gains and losses.Psychological Science,21(10),1438-1445.
Novemsky,N.,&Kahneman,D.(2005).The boundaries of loss aversion.Journal of Marketing Research,42(2),119-128.
Paulus,M.(2018).The multidimensional nature of early prosocial behavior:Theoretical perspectives.Current Opinion in Psychology,20(2),111-116.
Penner,L.A.,Dovidio,J.F.,Piliavin,J.A.,&Schroeder,D.A.(2005).Prosocial behavior:Multilevel perspectives.Annual Review of Psychology,56(1),365-392.
Polman,E.(2010).Information distortion in self-other decision making.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,46(2),432-435.
Polman,E.(2012a).Effects of self-other decision making on regulatory focus and choice overload.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,102(5),980-993.
Polman,E.(2012b).Self-other decision making and loss aversion.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,119(2),141-150.
Robbins,E.E.(2013).Inequity aversion and fairness in development(Doctral Dissertation).Emory University,Atlanta.
Steelandt,S.,Broihanne,M.H.,Romain,A.,Thierry,B.,&Dufour,V.(2013).Decision-making under risk of loss in children.PLoS One,8(1),e52316.
Stocks,E.L.,Lishner,D.A.,&Decker,S.K.(2009).Altruism or psychological escape:Why does empathy promote prosocial behavior?European Journal of Social Psychology,39(5),649-665.
丁凤琴,陆朝晖.(2016).共情与亲社会行为关系的元分析.心理科学进展,24(8),1159-1174.
寇彧,唐玲玲.(2004).心境对亲社会行为的影响.北京师范大学学报(社会科学版),(5),44-49.
肖凤秋,郑志伟,陈英和.(2014).亲社会行为产生机制的理论演进.心理科学,37(5),1263-1270.
Coté,S.,Tremblay,R.E.,Nagin,D.,Zoccolillo,M.,&Vitaro,F.(2002).The development of impulsivity,fearfulness,and helpfulness during childhood:Patterns of consistency and change in the trajectories of boys and girls.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,43(5),609-618.
Dunfield,K.A.(2014).A construct divided:prosocial behavior as helping,sharing,and comforting subtypes.Frontiers in Psychology,5(3),958.
Gneezy,A.,Imas,A.,Brown,A.,Nelson,L.D.,&Norton,M.I.(2012).Paying to be nice:Consistency and costly prosocial behavior.Management Science,58(1),179-187.
Grant,A.,&Dutton,J.(2012).Beneficiary or benefactor,are people more prosocial when they reflect on receiving or giving?Psychological Science,23(9),1033-1039.
Harbaugh,W.T.,Krause,K.,&Vesterlund,L.(2002).Risk attitudes of children and adults:Choices over small and large probability gains and losses.Experimental Economics,5(1),53-84.
Higgins,E.T.(1998).Promotion and prevention:Regulatory focus as a motivational principle.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,30(2),1-46.
Idson,L.C.,Liberman,N.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Imagining how you’d feel:The role of motivational experiences from regulatory fit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30(7),926-937.
Imuta,K.,Henry,J.D.,Slaughter,V.,Selcuk,B.,&Ruffman,T.(2016).Theory of mind and prosocial behavior in childhood:A metaanalytic review.Developmental Psychology,52(8),1192-1205.
Kahneman,D.,&Tversky,A.(1979).Prospect theory:An analysis of decision under risk.Econometrica:Journal of the Econometric Society,47(2),263-292.
Kahneman,D.,&Miller,D.T.(1986).Norm theory:Comparing reality to its alternatives.Psychological Review,93(2),136-153.
Levin,I.P.,&Hart,S.S.(2003).Risk preferences in young children:Early evidence of individual differences in reaction to potential gains and losses.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making,16(5),397-413.
Li,Y.J.,Kenrick,D.T.,Griskevicius,V.,&Neuberg,S.L.(2012).Economic decision biases and fundamental motivations:How mating and self-protection alter loss aversion.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,102(3),550-561.
Liberman,N.,Idson,L.C.,&Higgins,E.T.(2005).Predicting the intensity of losses vs.non-gains and non-losses vs.gains in judging fairness and value:A test of the loss aversion explanation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,41(5),527-534.
Mc Graw,A.P.,Larsen,J.T.,Kahneman,D.,&Schkade,D.(2010).Comparing gains and losses.Psychological Science,21(10),1438-1445.
Novemsky,N.,&Kahneman,D.(2005).The boundaries of loss aversion.Journal of Marketing Research,42(2),119-128.
Paulus,M.(2018).The multidimensional nature of early prosocial behavior:Theoretical perspectives.Current Opinion in Psychology,20(2),111-116.
Penner,L.A.,Dovidio,J.F.,Piliavin,J.A.,&Schroeder,D.A.(2005).Prosocial behavior:Multilevel perspectives.Annual Review of Psychology,56(1),365-392.
Polman,E.(2010).Information distortion in self-other decision making.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,46(2),432-435.
Polman,E.(2012a).Effects of self-other decision making on regulatory focus and choice overload.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,102(5),980-993.
Polman,E.(2012b).Self-other decision making and loss aversion.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,119(2),141-150.
Robbins,E.E.(2013).Inequity aversion and fairness in development(Doctral Dissertation).Emory University,Atlanta.
Steelandt,S.,Broihanne,M.H.,Romain,A.,Thierry,B.,&Dufour,V.(2013).Decision-making under risk of loss in children.PLoS One,8(1),e52316.
Stocks,E.L.,Lishner,D.A.,&Decker,S.K.(2009).Altruism or psychological escape:Why does empathy promote prosocial behavior?European Journal of Social Psychology,39(5),649-665.
丁凤琴,陆朝晖.(2016).共情与亲社会行为关系的元分析.心理科学进展,24(8),1159-1174.
寇彧,唐玲玲.(2004).心境对亲社会行为的影响.北京师范大学学报(社会科学版),(5),44-49.
肖凤秋,郑志伟,陈英和.(2014).亲社会行为产生机制的理论演进.心理科学,37(5),1263-1270.