儿童社交回避行为:成因、测量方式及适应功能
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摘要
社会退缩行为是指儿童在社会情境中抑制自己参与同伴互动并表现出独处的行为。根据不同的社交动机,社会退缩行为包含多种亚类型,其中社交回避行为这一亚类型指儿童总是表现出主动避免各种社交场合的行为。总体而言,社交回避是目前研究最少的一种,其形成的主要原因可能是由于儿童本身较高的抑郁感所致,而研究者已开始尝试以间接和直接的方式测量其水平。来自以变量为中心和以个体为中心的研究分别表明,社交回避儿童面临着最高的适应风险。鉴于这一研究领域的广泛前景,未来的研究亟需关注社交回避影响儿童适应的过程机制及其年龄发展特点,测量工具的进一步开发,直接的跨文化比较以及社交回避的干预方案开发。
For a long time, the need for belongingness has been considered as one of the most important basic human needs. Peer interactions make important and unique contributions to children's social, emotional, cognitive, and moral development(Rubin, Bukowski, & Bowker, 2015), and lacking it may cause mental illness and maladjustment(Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009). However, socially withdrawn children habitually remove themselves from opportunities for peer interaction. In order to better understand this group of children, Asendorpf(1990) proposed a conceptual model postulating different child psychosocial outcomes as a function of social approach and social avoidance motivations. According to this model, avoidant children were portrayed as both desiring being solitude and actively seeking to avoid social interaction, whom were consequently at the most risk for social and emotional maladjustment.Although very little is known about social avoidance in childhood(Coplan et al. 2015), three postulations hypothesize the processes that may underlie the development of avoidant children(Asendorpf, 1990; Bowker & Raja, 2011; Chen, 2010; Coplan & Armer 2007; Coplan et al., 2015; Rubin et al., 2009; Schmidt & Fox, 1999), which are social anxiety, negative peer experiences and depression. However, there has been very limited empirical study of social avoidance to compare those three conceptual models directly. To our knowledge, only one study using short-term longitudinal design examined those hypotheses, and provided evidence supporting depressive symptoms as a salient predictor of social avoidance(Ding et al., 2018).Two approaches are available to measure social avoidance. One indirect approach is to select avoidant children based on the model of social motivations. Researchers speculated that children characterized by low approach motivation and high avoidance motivation would be defined as socially avoidant children according to Asendorpf(1990) before. The other direct approach for measurement on social avoidance, researcher used selfreported or parental-reported Social Avoidance Scale to test the level of avoidance directly.Only a handful of studies have specifically examined the associations between social avoidance and adjustment. Comparing the evidences found from person-oriented studies and variable-oriented studies, we found that socially avoidant children faced the most pervasive socioemotional difficulties and maladjustment, consistent with the postulations raised by Asendorpf(1990).Directions for future research are also discussed. First, it is necessary to develop and improve existing measurement, which will raise the possibility of heightened associations among variables stemming from the same sources of assessment. Second, considering the important role of social context, more cross-cultural studies are needed in this field. It will be important for researchers to continue to specifically explore the implications of social avoidance in different cultural context. Third, there is only one 9-month longitudinal study examined the mechanism of avoidant children,which limited the ability to draw any conclusions that extend beyond this developmental period. Future studies should explore more long-term design(e.g., several years), and also include additional aspects of children's emotional(e.g., loneliness) and social adjustment(e.g., peer exclusion, friendship quality) as this would allow for a more thorough exploration on the development, stability, and implications of social avoidance across childhood.
For a long time, the need for belongingness has been considered as one of the most important basic human needs. Peer interactions make important and unique contributions to children's social, emotional, cognitive, and moral development(Rubin, Bukowski, & Bowker, 2015), and lacking it may cause mental illness and maladjustment(Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009). However, socially withdrawn children habitually remove themselves from opportunities for peer interaction. In order to better understand this group of children, Asendorpf(1990) proposed a conceptual model postulating different child psychosocial outcomes as a function of social approach and social avoidance motivations. According to this model, avoidant children were portrayed as both desiring being solitude and actively seeking to avoid social interaction, whom were consequently at the most risk for social and emotional maladjustment.Although very little is known about social avoidance in childhood(Coplan et al. 2015), three postulations hypothesize the processes that may underlie the development of avoidant children(Asendorpf, 1990; Bowker & Raja, 2011; Chen, 2010; Coplan & Armer 2007; Coplan et al., 2015; Rubin et al., 2009; Schmidt & Fox, 1999), which are social anxiety, negative peer experiences and depression. However, there has been very limited empirical study of social avoidance to compare those three conceptual models directly. To our knowledge, only one study using short-term longitudinal design examined those hypotheses, and provided evidence supporting depressive symptoms as a salient predictor of social avoidance(Ding et al., 2018).Two approaches are available to measure social avoidance. One indirect approach is to select avoidant children based on the model of social motivations. Researchers speculated that children characterized by low approach motivation and high avoidance motivation would be defined as socially avoidant children according to Asendorpf(1990) before. The other direct approach for measurement on social avoidance, researcher used selfreported or parental-reported Social Avoidance Scale to test the level of avoidance directly.Only a handful of studies have specifically examined the associations between social avoidance and adjustment. Comparing the evidences found from person-oriented studies and variable-oriented studies, we found that socially avoidant children faced the most pervasive socioemotional difficulties and maladjustment, consistent with the postulations raised by Asendorpf(1990).Directions for future research are also discussed. First, it is necessary to develop and improve existing measurement, which will raise the possibility of heightened associations among variables stemming from the same sources of assessment. Second, considering the important role of social context, more cross-cultural studies are needed in this field. It will be important for researchers to continue to specifically explore the implications of social avoidance in different cultural context. Third, there is only one 9-month longitudinal study examined the mechanism of avoidant children,which limited the ability to draw any conclusions that extend beyond this developmental period. Future studies should explore more long-term design(e.g., several years), and also include additional aspects of children's emotional(e.g., loneliness) and social adjustment(e.g., peer exclusion, friendship quality) as this would allow for a more thorough exploration on the development, stability, and implications of social avoidance across childhood.
引文
丁雪辰,邓欣媚,桑标,李丹.(2018).青少年早期社交回避与同伴关系问题:有调节的中介模型.心理发展与教育,34,137-145.
丁雪辰,张田,邓欣媚,桑标,方力,程琛.(2015).“孤芳自赏”还是“茕茕孑立”:儿童社交淡漠适应功能的文化差异.心理科学进展,23,439-447.
刘俊升,周颖,李丹,陈欣银.(2015).儿童中期和青春期早期独处偏好与心理适应之关系:有调节的中介效应.心理学报,47,1004-1012.
周颖,刘俊升.(2014).青少年早期社交淡漠对同伴关系的预测:学习成绩的调节作用.心理科学,37,894-901.
Asendorpf,J.B.(1990).Beyond social withdrawal:Shyness,unsociability,and peer avoidance.Human Development,33,250-259.
Barstead,M.G.,Danko,C.M.,Chronis-Tuscano,A.,O’Brien,K.A.,Coplan,R.J.,&Rubin,K.H.(2018).Generalization of an early intervention for inhibited preschoolers to the classroom setting.Journal of Child and Family Studies.Advance online publication.
Blanchard,J.J.,Gangestad,S.W.,Brown,S.A.,&Horan,W.P.(2000).Hedonic capacity and schizotypy revisited:A taxometric analysis of social anhedonia.Journal of Abnormal Psychology,109,87-95.
Bowker,J.C.,&Raja,R.(2011).Social withdrawal subtypes during early adolescence in India.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,39,201-212.
Bowker,J.C.,Stotsky,M.T.,&Etkin,R.G.(2017).How BIS/BAS and psychobehavioral variables distinguish between social withdrawal subtypes during emerging adulthood.Personality and Individual Differences,119,283-288.
Brown,L.H.,Silvia,P.J.,Myin-Germeys,I.,&Kwapil,T.R.(2007).The expression of social anhedonia and social anxiety in daily life.Psychological Science,18,778-782.
Chen,X.(2010).Shyness-inhibition in childhood and adolescence:A crosscultural perspective.In K.H.Rubin&R.J.Coplan(Eds.),The development of shyness and social withdrawal(pp.213-235).New York:Guilford.
Chen,X.(2018).Culture,temperament,and social and psychological adjustment.Developmental Review,50,42-53.
Chen,X.,&French,D.C.(2008).Children’s social competence in cultural context.Annual Review of Psychology,59,591-616.
Chen,X.,Yang,F.,&Wang,L.(2013).Relations between shyness-sensitivity and internalizing problems in Chinese children:Moderating effects of academic achievement.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,41,825-836.
Coplan,R.J.,&Armer,M.(2007).A“multitude”of solitude:A closer look at social withdrawal and nonsocial play in early childhood.Child Development Perspectives,1,26-32.
Coplan,R.J.,Liu,J.,Ooi,L.L.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,&Ding,X.(2016).Aperson-oriented analysis of social withdrawal in Chinese children.Social Development,25,794-811.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,&Baldwin,D.(2018).Does it matter when we want to Be alone?Exploring developmental timing effects in the implications of unsociability.New Ideas in Psychology.Advance online publication.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,&Nocita,G.(2015).When one is company and two is a crowd:Why some children prefer solitude.Child Development Perspectives,9(3),133-137.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,Rose-Krasnor,L.,&Nocita,G.(2014).“I want to play alone”:Assessment and correlates of self-reported preference for solitary play in young children.Infant and Child Development,23,229-238.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,Xiao,B.,&Rose-Krasnor,L.(2018).Assessment and implications of multiple forms of social withdrawal in early childhood:A first look at social avoidance.Social Development,27,125-139.
Coplan,R.J.,Prakash,K.,O'Neil,K.,&Armer,M.(2004).Do you"want"to play?Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood.Developmental Psychology,40,244-258.
Coplan,R.J.,Rose-Krasnor,L.,Weeks,M.,Kingsbury,A.,Kingsbury,M.,&Bullock,A.(2013).Alone is a crowd:Social motivations,social withdrawal,and socio-emotional functioning in later childhood.Developmental Psychology,49,861-875.
Coplan,R.J.,Schneider,B.H.,Matheson,A.&Graham,A.A.(2010).“Play skills”for shy children:Development of a social skills-facilitated play early intervention program for extremely inhibited preschoolers.Infant and Child Development,19,223-237.
Coplan,R.J.,Wilson,J.,Frohlick,S.L.,&Zelenski,J.(2006).A person-oriented analysis of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in children.Personality&Individual Differences,41,917-927.
Crozier,W.R.(1995).Shyness and self-esteem in middle childhood.British Journal of Educational Psychology,65,85-95.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Deng,X.,Ooi,L.L.,Li,D.,&Sang,B.(2018).Sad,Scared,or Rejected?A Short-Term Longitudinal Study of the Predictors of Social Avoidance in Chinese Children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.Advance online publication.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Sang,B.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Cheng,C.(2015a).Young Chinese children’s beliefs about the implications of subtypes of social withdrawal:A first look at social avoidance.British Journal of Developmental Psychology,33,159-173.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Sang,B.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Cheng,C.(2015b).Starting small:Revisiting young children’s perceptions of social withdrawal in China.British Journal of Developmental Psychology,33,183-186.
Ding,X.,Liu,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,&Sang,B.(2014).Selfreported shyness in Chinese children:Validation of the Children’s shyness questionnaire and exploration of its links with adjustment and the role of coping.Personality and Individual Differences,68,183-188.
Ding,X.,Weeks,M.,Liu,J.,Sang,B.,&Zhou,Y.(2015).Relations between unsociability and peer problems in Chinese children:Moderating effect of behavioural control.Infant and Child Development,24,94-103.
Gazelle,H.,&Ladd,G.W.(2003).Anxious solitude and peer exclusion:Adiathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood.Child Development,74,257-278.
Gazelle,H.,&Rudolph,K.(2004).Moving toward and away from the world:Social approach and avoidance trajectories in anxious solitary youth.Child Development,75,829-849.
Henderson,H.A.,Marshall,P.J.,Fox,N.A.,&Rubin,K.H.(2004).Psychophysiological and behavioral evidence for varying forms and functions of nonsocial behavior in preschoolers.Child Development,75,236-250.
Kraemer,H.C.,Measelle,J.R.,Ablow,J.C.,Essex,M.J.,Boyce,W.T.,&Kupfer,D.J.(2003).A new approach to integrating data from multiple informants in psychiatric assessment and research:Mixing and matching contexts and perspectives.American Journal of Psychiatry,160,1566-1577.
La Greca,A.M.,&Stone,W.L.(1993).Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised:Factor structure and concurrent validity.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,22,17-27.
Li,Y.,Coplan,R.J.,Wang,Y.,Yin,J.,Zhu,J.,Gao,Z.,&Li,L.(2016).Preliminary evaluation of a social skills training and facilitated play early intervention program for extremely shy young children in China.Infant and Child Development,25,565-574.
Liu,J.,Bowker,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Yang,P.,Li,D.,&Chen,X.(2018).Evaluating links among shyness,peer relations,and internalizing problems in Chinese young adolescents.Journal of Research on Adolescence.Advance online publication.
Liu,J.,Chen,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Ding,X.,Zarbatany,L.,&Ellis,W.(2015).Shyness and unsociability and their relations with adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,46(3),371-386.
Liu,J.,Chen,X.,Zhou,Y.,Li,D.,Fu,R.,&Coplan,R.J.(2017).Relations of shyness-sensitivity and unsociability with adjustment in middle childhood and early adolescence in suburban Chinese children.International Journal of Behavioral Development,41,681-687.
Liu,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,Ding,X.,&Zhou,Y.(2014).Unsociability and shyness in Chinese children:Concurrent and predictive relations with indices of adjustment.Social Development,23,119-136.
Nelson,L.J.(2013).Going it alone:Comparing subtypes of withdrawal on indices of adjustment and maladjustment in emerging adulthood.Social Development,22,522-538.
Rubin,K.H.,Bukowski,W.M.,&Bowker,J.C.(2015).Children in peer groups.In R.M.Lerner(Series Ed.),M.H.Bornstein&T.Leventhal(Vol.Eds.),Handbook of child psychology and developmental science,Vol.4:Ecological settings and processes in developmental systems(7th ed.,pp.175-222).New York:Wiley Blackwell.
Rubin,K.H.,Coplan,R.J.,&Bowker,J.C.(2009).Social withdrawal in childhood.Annual Review of Psychology,60,141-171.
Sang,B.,Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Feng,X.(2018).Assessment and implications of social avoidance in Chinese early adolescents.Journal of Early Adolescence,38,554-573.
Schmidt,L.A.,&Fox,N.A.(1999).Conceptual,biological,and behavioral distinctions among different categories of shy children.In L.A.Schmidt&J.Schulkin(Eds.),Extreme fear,shyness,and social phobia:Origins,biological mechanisms,and clinical outcomes(pp.47-66).New York:Oxford University Press.
Silverman,W.K.&Berman,S.L.(2001).Psychosocial interventions for anxiety disorders in children:Status and future directions.In W.K.Silverman&P.D.A.Treffers(Eds.),Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents(pp.313-334).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Spangler,T.L.,&Gazelle,H.(2009).Anxious solitude,unsociability,and peer exclusion in middle childhood:A multi-trait multimethod matrix.Social Development,18,833-856.
Zhang,L.,&Eggum-Wilkens,N.D.(2018).Correlates of shyness and unsociability during early adolescence in urban and rural China.Journal of Early Adolescence,38,408-421.
丁雪辰,张田,邓欣媚,桑标,方力,程琛.(2015).“孤芳自赏”还是“茕茕孑立”:儿童社交淡漠适应功能的文化差异.心理科学进展,23,439-447.
刘俊升,周颖,李丹,陈欣银.(2015).儿童中期和青春期早期独处偏好与心理适应之关系:有调节的中介效应.心理学报,47,1004-1012.
周颖,刘俊升.(2014).青少年早期社交淡漠对同伴关系的预测:学习成绩的调节作用.心理科学,37,894-901.
Asendorpf,J.B.(1990).Beyond social withdrawal:Shyness,unsociability,and peer avoidance.Human Development,33,250-259.
Barstead,M.G.,Danko,C.M.,Chronis-Tuscano,A.,O’Brien,K.A.,Coplan,R.J.,&Rubin,K.H.(2018).Generalization of an early intervention for inhibited preschoolers to the classroom setting.Journal of Child and Family Studies.Advance online publication.
Blanchard,J.J.,Gangestad,S.W.,Brown,S.A.,&Horan,W.P.(2000).Hedonic capacity and schizotypy revisited:A taxometric analysis of social anhedonia.Journal of Abnormal Psychology,109,87-95.
Bowker,J.C.,&Raja,R.(2011).Social withdrawal subtypes during early adolescence in India.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,39,201-212.
Bowker,J.C.,Stotsky,M.T.,&Etkin,R.G.(2017).How BIS/BAS and psychobehavioral variables distinguish between social withdrawal subtypes during emerging adulthood.Personality and Individual Differences,119,283-288.
Brown,L.H.,Silvia,P.J.,Myin-Germeys,I.,&Kwapil,T.R.(2007).The expression of social anhedonia and social anxiety in daily life.Psychological Science,18,778-782.
Chen,X.(2010).Shyness-inhibition in childhood and adolescence:A crosscultural perspective.In K.H.Rubin&R.J.Coplan(Eds.),The development of shyness and social withdrawal(pp.213-235).New York:Guilford.
Chen,X.(2018).Culture,temperament,and social and psychological adjustment.Developmental Review,50,42-53.
Chen,X.,&French,D.C.(2008).Children’s social competence in cultural context.Annual Review of Psychology,59,591-616.
Chen,X.,Yang,F.,&Wang,L.(2013).Relations between shyness-sensitivity and internalizing problems in Chinese children:Moderating effects of academic achievement.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,41,825-836.
Coplan,R.J.,&Armer,M.(2007).A“multitude”of solitude:A closer look at social withdrawal and nonsocial play in early childhood.Child Development Perspectives,1,26-32.
Coplan,R.J.,Liu,J.,Ooi,L.L.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,&Ding,X.(2016).Aperson-oriented analysis of social withdrawal in Chinese children.Social Development,25,794-811.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,&Baldwin,D.(2018).Does it matter when we want to Be alone?Exploring developmental timing effects in the implications of unsociability.New Ideas in Psychology.Advance online publication.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,&Nocita,G.(2015).When one is company and two is a crowd:Why some children prefer solitude.Child Development Perspectives,9(3),133-137.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,Rose-Krasnor,L.,&Nocita,G.(2014).“I want to play alone”:Assessment and correlates of self-reported preference for solitary play in young children.Infant and Child Development,23,229-238.
Coplan,R.J.,Ooi,L.L.,Xiao,B.,&Rose-Krasnor,L.(2018).Assessment and implications of multiple forms of social withdrawal in early childhood:A first look at social avoidance.Social Development,27,125-139.
Coplan,R.J.,Prakash,K.,O'Neil,K.,&Armer,M.(2004).Do you"want"to play?Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood.Developmental Psychology,40,244-258.
Coplan,R.J.,Rose-Krasnor,L.,Weeks,M.,Kingsbury,A.,Kingsbury,M.,&Bullock,A.(2013).Alone is a crowd:Social motivations,social withdrawal,and socio-emotional functioning in later childhood.Developmental Psychology,49,861-875.
Coplan,R.J.,Schneider,B.H.,Matheson,A.&Graham,A.A.(2010).“Play skills”for shy children:Development of a social skills-facilitated play early intervention program for extremely inhibited preschoolers.Infant and Child Development,19,223-237.
Coplan,R.J.,Wilson,J.,Frohlick,S.L.,&Zelenski,J.(2006).A person-oriented analysis of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in children.Personality&Individual Differences,41,917-927.
Crozier,W.R.(1995).Shyness and self-esteem in middle childhood.British Journal of Educational Psychology,65,85-95.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Deng,X.,Ooi,L.L.,Li,D.,&Sang,B.(2018).Sad,Scared,or Rejected?A Short-Term Longitudinal Study of the Predictors of Social Avoidance in Chinese Children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.Advance online publication.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Sang,B.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Cheng,C.(2015a).Young Chinese children’s beliefs about the implications of subtypes of social withdrawal:A first look at social avoidance.British Journal of Developmental Psychology,33,159-173.
Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Sang,B.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Cheng,C.(2015b).Starting small:Revisiting young children’s perceptions of social withdrawal in China.British Journal of Developmental Psychology,33,183-186.
Ding,X.,Liu,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,&Sang,B.(2014).Selfreported shyness in Chinese children:Validation of the Children’s shyness questionnaire and exploration of its links with adjustment and the role of coping.Personality and Individual Differences,68,183-188.
Ding,X.,Weeks,M.,Liu,J.,Sang,B.,&Zhou,Y.(2015).Relations between unsociability and peer problems in Chinese children:Moderating effect of behavioural control.Infant and Child Development,24,94-103.
Gazelle,H.,&Ladd,G.W.(2003).Anxious solitude and peer exclusion:Adiathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood.Child Development,74,257-278.
Gazelle,H.,&Rudolph,K.(2004).Moving toward and away from the world:Social approach and avoidance trajectories in anxious solitary youth.Child Development,75,829-849.
Henderson,H.A.,Marshall,P.J.,Fox,N.A.,&Rubin,K.H.(2004).Psychophysiological and behavioral evidence for varying forms and functions of nonsocial behavior in preschoolers.Child Development,75,236-250.
Kraemer,H.C.,Measelle,J.R.,Ablow,J.C.,Essex,M.J.,Boyce,W.T.,&Kupfer,D.J.(2003).A new approach to integrating data from multiple informants in psychiatric assessment and research:Mixing and matching contexts and perspectives.American Journal of Psychiatry,160,1566-1577.
La Greca,A.M.,&Stone,W.L.(1993).Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised:Factor structure and concurrent validity.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,22,17-27.
Li,Y.,Coplan,R.J.,Wang,Y.,Yin,J.,Zhu,J.,Gao,Z.,&Li,L.(2016).Preliminary evaluation of a social skills training and facilitated play early intervention program for extremely shy young children in China.Infant and Child Development,25,565-574.
Liu,J.,Bowker,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Yang,P.,Li,D.,&Chen,X.(2018).Evaluating links among shyness,peer relations,and internalizing problems in Chinese young adolescents.Journal of Research on Adolescence.Advance online publication.
Liu,J.,Chen,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Ding,X.,Zarbatany,L.,&Ellis,W.(2015).Shyness and unsociability and their relations with adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,46(3),371-386.
Liu,J.,Chen,X.,Zhou,Y.,Li,D.,Fu,R.,&Coplan,R.J.(2017).Relations of shyness-sensitivity and unsociability with adjustment in middle childhood and early adolescence in suburban Chinese children.International Journal of Behavioral Development,41,681-687.
Liu,J.,Coplan,R.J.,Chen,X.,Li,D.,Ding,X.,&Zhou,Y.(2014).Unsociability and shyness in Chinese children:Concurrent and predictive relations with indices of adjustment.Social Development,23,119-136.
Nelson,L.J.(2013).Going it alone:Comparing subtypes of withdrawal on indices of adjustment and maladjustment in emerging adulthood.Social Development,22,522-538.
Rubin,K.H.,Bukowski,W.M.,&Bowker,J.C.(2015).Children in peer groups.In R.M.Lerner(Series Ed.),M.H.Bornstein&T.Leventhal(Vol.Eds.),Handbook of child psychology and developmental science,Vol.4:Ecological settings and processes in developmental systems(7th ed.,pp.175-222).New York:Wiley Blackwell.
Rubin,K.H.,Coplan,R.J.,&Bowker,J.C.(2009).Social withdrawal in childhood.Annual Review of Psychology,60,141-171.
Sang,B.,Ding,X.,Coplan,R.J.,Liu,J.,Pan,T.,&Feng,X.(2018).Assessment and implications of social avoidance in Chinese early adolescents.Journal of Early Adolescence,38,554-573.
Schmidt,L.A.,&Fox,N.A.(1999).Conceptual,biological,and behavioral distinctions among different categories of shy children.In L.A.Schmidt&J.Schulkin(Eds.),Extreme fear,shyness,and social phobia:Origins,biological mechanisms,and clinical outcomes(pp.47-66).New York:Oxford University Press.
Silverman,W.K.&Berman,S.L.(2001).Psychosocial interventions for anxiety disorders in children:Status and future directions.In W.K.Silverman&P.D.A.Treffers(Eds.),Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents(pp.313-334).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Spangler,T.L.,&Gazelle,H.(2009).Anxious solitude,unsociability,and peer exclusion in middle childhood:A multi-trait multimethod matrix.Social Development,18,833-856.
Zhang,L.,&Eggum-Wilkens,N.D.(2018).Correlates of shyness and unsociability during early adolescence in urban and rural China.Journal of Early Adolescence,38,408-421.