20世纪中叶以来中国古代城市形态的西方研究述评
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摘要
中国古代城市形态研究是西方汉学研究的一个重要领域,20世纪中叶后这一研究走向系统和深入,其主要领域包括:关注普遍特征的城市形态通史研究、进行多样化与跨学科探索的个案城市研究,以及从特定角度出发的城市形态形成机理研究。这些研究的比较性研究视野、现代科学方法和独特的文献选取途径对当代中国学者的研究具有启发意义,但其研究立足点与材料获取范围的局限性也带来了消极的影响。综合来说,全球史视野下的"在地"研究是未来的发展趋势。
The study of ancient Chinese urban form is an important field of the western Sinology research, which had become comprehensive and in-depth since the mid-20 th century. There are three main research issues:(1) general history of urban form focusing on universal features;(2) case studies with the exploration of diversity and interdisciplinary;(3) forming mechanism of urban forms in specific aspects. The vision of comparative study, the methods and technologies of modern science and the unique access to literature of these western studies could have a useful inspiration for the study of contemporary Chinese scholars. However, the limitations of their research standpoint and material acquisition scope have brought negative effects. In summary, the "local" research with a global vision is the future trend of development.
The study of ancient Chinese urban form is an important field of the western Sinology research, which had become comprehensive and in-depth since the mid-20 th century. There are three main research issues:(1) general history of urban form focusing on universal features;(2) case studies with the exploration of diversity and interdisciplinary;(3) forming mechanism of urban forms in specific aspects. The vision of comparative study, the methods and technologies of modern science and the unique access to literature of these western studies could have a useful inspiration for the study of contemporary Chinese scholars. However, the limitations of their research standpoint and material acquisition scope have brought negative effects. In summary, the "local" research with a global vision is the future trend of development.
引文
[1]中国大百科全书总编辑委员会.中国大百科全书·地理学[M].北京:中国大百科全书出版社,2002:43.
[2]侯且岸.认知中国:文化研究的路径[M].北京:北京出版社,2006:272.
[3]EBERHARD W.Data on the structure of the Chinese city in the preIndustrial period[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1956(4):253-268.
[4]BOYD A.Chinese architecture and town planning 1500 B.C-A.D.1911[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1962.
[5]CHANG S D.Some observations on the morphology of Chinese walled cities[J].Annals of the Association of American Geographers,1970,60(1):63-91.
[6]STEINHARDT N S.Chinese imperial city planning[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,1990.
[7]SCHINZ A.The magic square:cities in ancient China[M].Stuttgart:Axel Menges,1996.
[8]BISHOP C W.An ancient Chinese capital[J].Antiquity,1938(12):68-78.
[9]足立喜六.长安史迹研究[M].王双怀等,译.西安:三秦出版社,2003.
[10]JAMES S.The city walls of Han Ch’ang-an[J].T’oung Pao,Second Series,1978,64(I-3):1-46.
[11]HENG C K.Cities of aristocrats and bureaucrats:the development of medieval Chinese cityscapes[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,1999.
[12]XIONG V.Sui-Tang Chang’an:a study in the urban history of late medieval China[M].Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,2000.
[13]RASMUSSEN S E.Towns and buildings:described in drawings and words[M].Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,1951.
[14]SIT V F S.Beijing:the nature and planning of a Chinese capital city[M].Chichester:Wiley,1995.
[15]STEINHARDT N S.Why were Chang’an and Beijing so different?[J].Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,1986,45:339-357.
[16]XIONG V.Capital cities and urban form in pre-modern China:Luoyang,1038 BCE to 938 CE[M].New York:Routledge,2016.
[17]JOHNSTON R S.The ancient city of Suzhou:town planning in the Sung Dynasty[J].The Town Planning Review,1983,54(2):194-222.
[18]XU Y.The Chinese city in space and time:the development of urban form in Suzhou[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,2000.
[19]WHITEHAND J W R,GU K.Extending the compass of plan analysis:a Chinese exploration[J].Urban Morphology,2007(11):91-109.
[20]CONZEN M P,GU K,WHITEHAND J W R.Comparing traditional urban form in China and Europe:a fringe-belt approach[J].Urban Geography,2012,33(1):22-45.
[21]TIMOTHY D.BAKER,JR.The urban-suburban spatial structure of Han and Tang Chang’an[J].国立政治大学历史学报,2011(35):1-32.
[22]GERNET J.Daily life in China on the eve of the Mongol invasion,1250-1276[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1962.
[23]HO P.Lo-yang.A.D.495-534:A study of physical and socio-economic planning of a metropolitan area[J].Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,1966,26(3-4):52-101.
[24]MOTE F W.The transformation of Nanking,1350-1400[M]//SKINNERG W,ed.The city in late imperial China[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1977:101-153.
[25]DRAY-NOVEY A.Spatial order and police in imperial Beijing[J].The Journal of Asian Studies,1993,52(4):885-922.
[26]NAQUIN S.Peking:temples and city life,1400-1900[M].Berkeley:University of California Press,2000.
[27]FINNANE A.Speaking of Yangzhou:a Chinese city,1550-1850[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2004.
[28]FEI S.Negotiating urban space:urbanization and late Ming Nanjing[M].Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Asia Center:Distributed by Harvard University Press,2009.
[29]LATTIMORE O.Inner Asian frontiers of China[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,Incorporated,1940.
[30]GAUBATZ P R.Beyond the Great Wall:urban form and transformation on the Chinese frontiers[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1996.
[31]DOOLITTLE J.Vocabulary and handbook of the Chinese language[M].Foochow:Rozario,Marcal and Co.,1872.
[32]DE GROOT J J M.The religious system of China[M].Leiden:Brill Archive,1892.
[33]COULING S,ed.The Encyclopedia Sinica[M].Shanghai:Kelly and Walsh,1917:175
[34]NEEDHAM J.Science and civilisation in China Vol.2[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1956:359-363.
[35]NEEDHAM J.Science and civilisation in China Vol.4.1[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1962:239-244.
[36]FEUCHT WANG S D R.An anthropological analysis of Chinese geomancy[M].Vientiane:Vithagna Press,1974:112-172.
[37]PATON M J.Five classics of Fengshui:Chinese spiritual geography in historical and environmental perspective[M].Leiden Boston:Brill,2013.
[38]WHEATLEY P.The pivot of the four quarters:a preliminary enquiry into the origins and character of the ancient Chinese city[M].Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,1971:425.
[39]WRIGHT A F.The cosmology of the Chinese City[M]//SKINNER G W,ed.The city in late Imperial China[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1977:76.
[40]LEWIS M E.The construction of space in early China[M].Albany:State University of New York Press,2005:170-171.
[41]PANKENIER D W.Astrology and cosmology in early China:conforming earth to heaven[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013:317-329.
[42]周锡山.王国维集(第2册)[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2008:324.
(1)本文所讨论的是狭义的城市形态,广义的城市形态还包括非物质形态,即城市的社会、文化、政治、经济等空间要素的空间分布形式。
(2)本文所说的“西方学者”是指立足西方学术背景,并以西文写作的学者,其中包括华裔学者。本文所涉及的文献以英文为主,包括从其他文字(法文、德文、丹麦文等)翻译成英文的文献。
(3)国际汉学界公认自19世纪中期至第一次世界大战爆发这段时期是汉学发展的高潮期,第二次高潮在第二次世界大战以后。详见:胡志宏.西方中国古代史研究导论[M].北京:大象出版社, 2002:20.
(1)“亚洲的城市不存在类似西方可以代表市民的共同体”“不管在中国还是在日本,‘自治’只是属于职业团体及村落——而非城市——的特色。在中国,城市是个要塞及皇权代理人的治所,日本则连这种意义的‘城市’都没有。”详见马克斯·韦伯.非正当性的支配:城市的类型学[M].康乐,简惠美,译.桂林:广西师范大学出版社, 2005:27.
(2)章生道在此文基础上又撰写了《城治的形态与结构研究》(The Morphology of the Walled City),收录在施坚雅(G. William Skinner)编著的《中华帝国晚期的城市》中,主要材料与观点与此文一致。详见SKINNER G W, ed. The city in late Imperial China[M]. Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1977:75-100.
(1)“唐宋城市变革”或称“中世纪城市革命”,总体来说是指中国古代从中唐到宋,城市形态从封闭转向开放的过程。1931年日本史学家加藤繁提出,唐代后期至北宋中后期,坊墙被打破,城市由封闭走向开放(详见:加藤繁.中国经济史考证(第一卷)[M].吴杰,译,北京:商务印书馆,1959:277)。伊懋可(Mark Elvin)提出这属于“中国古代城市中世纪在市场结构和城市化上的革命”(详见:ELVIN M. The pattern of Chinese past[M]. Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1973:162)。
(2)法文原版出版于1959年,英文译本出版于1962年。
(1)这一部分列举的词条包括:风水(误作风火)、地理、罗经、点穴、水口、来水处、出水处、阳龙、阴龙、寻龙、四大局、前向、后山、二十四山向、十二宫、龙虎沙、库、堂、八宫、镇物、阴宅、阳宅、井、庙、暗箭、十干、十二支、破法。
(1)中国历史的连续性在19世纪即成为汉学研究的一个重要主题,法国汉学家鲍狄埃(Guillaume Pauthier)于1837年出版的巨著《中华大帝国的历史、地理和文化及资料汇编》(Chine ou description historique, géographique et littéraire de ce vaste empire, d’après des documents chinois)开篇第一段话即说明这个主题在汉学里的位置:“所有历史现象中使人印象强烈并试图理解的是要掌握整个宇宙生活和人类的一般发展,最古老、最特殊的是帝国确实无限期地存在着。”详见BASTID-BRUGUIèRE MARIANNE. Some themes of 19th and 20th Century European historiography on China[M]//WILSON M, CAYLAY J, ed. Europe studies China:papers from international conference on the history of European sinology. London:Han Shan Tang Books, 1995.
(1)《法国汉学家伯希和莅平》,《北平晨报》1933年1月15日,转引自:桑兵.国学与汉学:近代中外学界交往录[M].杭州:浙江人民出版社,1999:140.
[2]侯且岸.认知中国:文化研究的路径[M].北京:北京出版社,2006:272.
[3]EBERHARD W.Data on the structure of the Chinese city in the preIndustrial period[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1956(4):253-268.
[4]BOYD A.Chinese architecture and town planning 1500 B.C-A.D.1911[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1962.
[5]CHANG S D.Some observations on the morphology of Chinese walled cities[J].Annals of the Association of American Geographers,1970,60(1):63-91.
[6]STEINHARDT N S.Chinese imperial city planning[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,1990.
[7]SCHINZ A.The magic square:cities in ancient China[M].Stuttgart:Axel Menges,1996.
[8]BISHOP C W.An ancient Chinese capital[J].Antiquity,1938(12):68-78.
[9]足立喜六.长安史迹研究[M].王双怀等,译.西安:三秦出版社,2003.
[10]JAMES S.The city walls of Han Ch’ang-an[J].T’oung Pao,Second Series,1978,64(I-3):1-46.
[11]HENG C K.Cities of aristocrats and bureaucrats:the development of medieval Chinese cityscapes[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,1999.
[12]XIONG V.Sui-Tang Chang’an:a study in the urban history of late medieval China[M].Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,2000.
[13]RASMUSSEN S E.Towns and buildings:described in drawings and words[M].Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,1951.
[14]SIT V F S.Beijing:the nature and planning of a Chinese capital city[M].Chichester:Wiley,1995.
[15]STEINHARDT N S.Why were Chang’an and Beijing so different?[J].Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,1986,45:339-357.
[16]XIONG V.Capital cities and urban form in pre-modern China:Luoyang,1038 BCE to 938 CE[M].New York:Routledge,2016.
[17]JOHNSTON R S.The ancient city of Suzhou:town planning in the Sung Dynasty[J].The Town Planning Review,1983,54(2):194-222.
[18]XU Y.The Chinese city in space and time:the development of urban form in Suzhou[M].Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press,2000.
[19]WHITEHAND J W R,GU K.Extending the compass of plan analysis:a Chinese exploration[J].Urban Morphology,2007(11):91-109.
[20]CONZEN M P,GU K,WHITEHAND J W R.Comparing traditional urban form in China and Europe:a fringe-belt approach[J].Urban Geography,2012,33(1):22-45.
[21]TIMOTHY D.BAKER,JR.The urban-suburban spatial structure of Han and Tang Chang’an[J].国立政治大学历史学报,2011(35):1-32.
[22]GERNET J.Daily life in China on the eve of the Mongol invasion,1250-1276[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1962.
[23]HO P.Lo-yang.A.D.495-534:A study of physical and socio-economic planning of a metropolitan area[J].Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,1966,26(3-4):52-101.
[24]MOTE F W.The transformation of Nanking,1350-1400[M]//SKINNERG W,ed.The city in late imperial China[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1977:101-153.
[25]DRAY-NOVEY A.Spatial order and police in imperial Beijing[J].The Journal of Asian Studies,1993,52(4):885-922.
[26]NAQUIN S.Peking:temples and city life,1400-1900[M].Berkeley:University of California Press,2000.
[27]FINNANE A.Speaking of Yangzhou:a Chinese city,1550-1850[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2004.
[28]FEI S.Negotiating urban space:urbanization and late Ming Nanjing[M].Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Asia Center:Distributed by Harvard University Press,2009.
[29]LATTIMORE O.Inner Asian frontiers of China[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,Incorporated,1940.
[30]GAUBATZ P R.Beyond the Great Wall:urban form and transformation on the Chinese frontiers[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1996.
[31]DOOLITTLE J.Vocabulary and handbook of the Chinese language[M].Foochow:Rozario,Marcal and Co.,1872.
[32]DE GROOT J J M.The religious system of China[M].Leiden:Brill Archive,1892.
[33]COULING S,ed.The Encyclopedia Sinica[M].Shanghai:Kelly and Walsh,1917:175
[34]NEEDHAM J.Science and civilisation in China Vol.2[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1956:359-363.
[35]NEEDHAM J.Science and civilisation in China Vol.4.1[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1962:239-244.
[36]FEUCHT WANG S D R.An anthropological analysis of Chinese geomancy[M].Vientiane:Vithagna Press,1974:112-172.
[37]PATON M J.Five classics of Fengshui:Chinese spiritual geography in historical and environmental perspective[M].Leiden Boston:Brill,2013.
[38]WHEATLEY P.The pivot of the four quarters:a preliminary enquiry into the origins and character of the ancient Chinese city[M].Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,1971:425.
[39]WRIGHT A F.The cosmology of the Chinese City[M]//SKINNER G W,ed.The city in late Imperial China[M].Stanford:Stanford University Press,1977:76.
[40]LEWIS M E.The construction of space in early China[M].Albany:State University of New York Press,2005:170-171.
[41]PANKENIER D W.Astrology and cosmology in early China:conforming earth to heaven[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013:317-329.
[42]周锡山.王国维集(第2册)[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2008:324.
(1)本文所讨论的是狭义的城市形态,广义的城市形态还包括非物质形态,即城市的社会、文化、政治、经济等空间要素的空间分布形式。
(2)本文所说的“西方学者”是指立足西方学术背景,并以西文写作的学者,其中包括华裔学者。本文所涉及的文献以英文为主,包括从其他文字(法文、德文、丹麦文等)翻译成英文的文献。
(3)国际汉学界公认自19世纪中期至第一次世界大战爆发这段时期是汉学发展的高潮期,第二次高潮在第二次世界大战以后。详见:胡志宏.西方中国古代史研究导论[M].北京:大象出版社, 2002:20.
(1)“亚洲的城市不存在类似西方可以代表市民的共同体”“不管在中国还是在日本,‘自治’只是属于职业团体及村落——而非城市——的特色。在中国,城市是个要塞及皇权代理人的治所,日本则连这种意义的‘城市’都没有。”详见马克斯·韦伯.非正当性的支配:城市的类型学[M].康乐,简惠美,译.桂林:广西师范大学出版社, 2005:27.
(2)章生道在此文基础上又撰写了《城治的形态与结构研究》(The Morphology of the Walled City),收录在施坚雅(G. William Skinner)编著的《中华帝国晚期的城市》中,主要材料与观点与此文一致。详见SKINNER G W, ed. The city in late Imperial China[M]. Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1977:75-100.
(1)“唐宋城市变革”或称“中世纪城市革命”,总体来说是指中国古代从中唐到宋,城市形态从封闭转向开放的过程。1931年日本史学家加藤繁提出,唐代后期至北宋中后期,坊墙被打破,城市由封闭走向开放(详见:加藤繁.中国经济史考证(第一卷)[M].吴杰,译,北京:商务印书馆,1959:277)。伊懋可(Mark Elvin)提出这属于“中国古代城市中世纪在市场结构和城市化上的革命”(详见:ELVIN M. The pattern of Chinese past[M]. Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1973:162)。
(2)法文原版出版于1959年,英文译本出版于1962年。
(1)这一部分列举的词条包括:风水(误作风火)、地理、罗经、点穴、水口、来水处、出水处、阳龙、阴龙、寻龙、四大局、前向、后山、二十四山向、十二宫、龙虎沙、库、堂、八宫、镇物、阴宅、阳宅、井、庙、暗箭、十干、十二支、破法。
(1)中国历史的连续性在19世纪即成为汉学研究的一个重要主题,法国汉学家鲍狄埃(Guillaume Pauthier)于1837年出版的巨著《中华大帝国的历史、地理和文化及资料汇编》(Chine ou description historique, géographique et littéraire de ce vaste empire, d’après des documents chinois)开篇第一段话即说明这个主题在汉学里的位置:“所有历史现象中使人印象强烈并试图理解的是要掌握整个宇宙生活和人类的一般发展,最古老、最特殊的是帝国确实无限期地存在着。”详见BASTID-BRUGUIèRE MARIANNE. Some themes of 19th and 20th Century European historiography on China[M]//WILSON M, CAYLAY J, ed. Europe studies China:papers from international conference on the history of European sinology. London:Han Shan Tang Books, 1995.
(1)《法国汉学家伯希和莅平》,《北平晨报》1933年1月15日,转引自:桑兵.国学与汉学:近代中外学界交往录[M].杭州:浙江人民出版社,1999:140.
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