北京城区二氧化碳时空分布及湍流谱特征
|
摘要
利用北京325 m气象塔上安装的7层CO_2涡动相关系统在2014年12月到2015年11月的观测资料,分析了北京城区不同高度上CO_2浓度、通量时空分布及湍流谱的特征。结果表明:城市CO_2浓度日变化除了冬季都呈现双峰型,冬季由于人为碳源排放的大幅增加,双峰型不明显。每层的CO_2浓度、通量都有明显的季节变化:冬季最高,春末、夏季最低。CO_2浓度整体随高度的增加而降低。北京城区是CO_2源,CO_2通量的日变化不如CO_2浓度日变化规律明显。CO_2通量在47 m以下为负,47 m以上为正。通量在140 m以下随高度的增加而增加;140m以上随高度的增加而减少。根据对CO_2时空分布的分析可知:边界层CO_2浓度、通量强烈受到碳源、下垫面植被、大气稳定度、环境温度和天气过程等因素的影响。各变量谱与Kaimal等的研究结果接近:归一化速度谱和CO_2谱在惯性子区有-2/3的斜率,在低频区与稳定度参数(Z/L)有一定的关系。这说明复杂地形的城市下垫面的湍流谱结构与平坦地形相比没有太大的实质性差异。
Using the turbulence data measured by the open path eddy covariance system deployed at the Beijing 325-m meteorological tower, the concentration and flux and spectrum of CO_2 at seven different height levels are calculated for the period from December 2014 to November 2015. Analysis of the results indicate that the CO_2 concentration displays diurnal variation with double peaks except in the winter. Human activities must be considered in the winter since they reduce the diurnal variation of CO_2 concentration and lead to a relatively flat pattern. At all observational heights, the CO_2 concentration and flux show obvious seasonal variations with the maximum values appearing in the winter and the minimum values occurring at the end of the spring and summer. The CO_2 concentration decreases with height as a whole.Beijing is a carbon dioxide source. Daily changes in the CO_2 flux are not as obvious as daily changes in the CO_2 concentration. The CO_2 flux is negative below 47 m and positive above 47 m. The CO_2 flux decreases with height below140 m and increases with height above 140 m. According to the analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of CO_2, it is found that the CO_2 concentration and flux in urban boundary layer are strongly affected by surface carbon emission source, underlying surface vegetation, atmospheric stability, environment temperature and weather process and so on. The results of turbulence spectra in the present study are very close to the results of Kaimal, i.e., the normalized velocity spectrum and the CO_2 spectrum have a slope of-2/3 in the inertial subregion and they both have relationships with the stability parameter(Z/L) in the low frequency zone. This indicates that the turbulence spectra of the city with complex topography are not quite different from those with flat topography.
Using the turbulence data measured by the open path eddy covariance system deployed at the Beijing 325-m meteorological tower, the concentration and flux and spectrum of CO_2 at seven different height levels are calculated for the period from December 2014 to November 2015. Analysis of the results indicate that the CO_2 concentration displays diurnal variation with double peaks except in the winter. Human activities must be considered in the winter since they reduce the diurnal variation of CO_2 concentration and lead to a relatively flat pattern. At all observational heights, the CO_2 concentration and flux show obvious seasonal variations with the maximum values appearing in the winter and the minimum values occurring at the end of the spring and summer. The CO_2 concentration decreases with height as a whole.Beijing is a carbon dioxide source. Daily changes in the CO_2 flux are not as obvious as daily changes in the CO_2 concentration. The CO_2 flux is negative below 47 m and positive above 47 m. The CO_2 flux decreases with height below140 m and increases with height above 140 m. According to the analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of CO_2, it is found that the CO_2 concentration and flux in urban boundary layer are strongly affected by surface carbon emission source, underlying surface vegetation, atmospheric stability, environment temperature and weather process and so on. The results of turbulence spectra in the present study are very close to the results of Kaimal, i.e., the normalized velocity spectrum and the CO_2 spectrum have a slope of-2/3 in the inertial subregion and they both have relationships with the stability parameter(Z/L) in the low frequency zone. This indicates that the turbulence spectra of the city with complex topography are not quite different from those with flat topography.
引文
Aubinet M,Grelle A,Ibrom A,et al.2000.Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests:The EUROFLUX methodology[J].Advances in Ecological Research,30:113-173.
Baldocchi D D,Hincks B B,Meyers T P.1988.Measuring biosphereatmosphere exchanges of biologically related gases with micrometeorological methods[J].Ecology,69(5):1331-1340,doi:10.2307/1941631.
Baldocchi D D,Wilson K B.2001.Modeling CO2 and water vapor exchange of a temperate broadleaved forest across hourly to decadal time scales[J].Ecological Modelling,142:155-184,doi:10.1016/S0304-3800(01)00287-3.
Cava D,Giostra U,Tagliazucca M.2001.Spectral maxima in a perturbed stable boundary layer[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,100(3):421-437,doi:10.1023/A:1019219117439.
Foken T,Gockede M,Mauder M,et al.2004.Post-field data quality control[M]//Lee X,Massman W,Law B.Handbook of Micrometeorology:AGuide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis.Dordrecht,Boston,London:Kluwer Academic,181-208,doi:10.1007/1-4020-2265-4_9.
Grabler A.1994.Technology[M]//Meyer W B,Turner B L.A Changes in Land Use and Land Cover:A Global Perspective.Cambridge:Cambridge University,287.
Grimmond C S B,Oke T R.2002.Turbulent heat fluxes in urban areas:Observations and a Local-Scale Urban Meteorological Parameterization Scheme(LUMPS)[J].J.Appl.Meteor.,41(7):792-810,doi:10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<0792:THFIUA>2.0.CO;2.
Grimmond C S B,Salmond J A,Oke T R,et al.2004.Flux and turbulence measurements at a densely built-up site in Marseille:Heat,mass(water and carbon dioxide),and momentum[J].Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres,109(D24):D24101,doi:10.1029/2004JD004936.
何文,刘辉志,冯健武.2010.城市近地层湍流通量及CO2通量变化特征[J].气候与环境研究,15(1):21-33.He Wen,Liu Huizhi,Feng Jianwu.2010.Characteristics of turbulent fluxes and carbon dioxide flux over urban surface layer[J].Climatic and Environmental Research,15(1):21-33,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9585.2010.01.03.
Helfter C,Famulari D,Phillips G J,et al.2011.Controls of carbon dioxide concentrations and fluxes above central London[J].Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics,11(5):1913-1928,doi:10.5194/acp-11-1913-2011.
Hoornweg D A,Freire M,Lee M J,et al.2011.Cities and Climate Change:Responding toAn UrgentAgenda[M].Washington D C:TheWorld Bank,324.
Hui D F,Wan S Q,Su B,et al.2004.Gap-filling missing data in eddy covariance measurements using multiple imputation(MI)for annual estimations[J].Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,121(1-2):93-111,doi:10.1016/S0168-1923(03)00158-8.
贾庆宇,周广胜,王宇,等.2010.城市复杂下垫面供暖前后CO2通量特征分析[J].环境科学,31(4):843-849.Jia Qingyu,Zhou Guangsheng,Wang Yu,et al.2010.Characteristics of CO2 flux before and in the heating period at urban complex underlying surface area[J].Environmental Science,31(4):843-849,doi:10.13227/j.hjkx.2010.04.025.
Kaimal J C,Wyngaard J C,Izumi Y,et al.1972.Spectral characteristics of surface-layer turbulence[J].Quart.J.Roy.Meteor.Soc.,98(417):563-589,doi:10.1002/qj.49709841707.
刘明星,张宏升,宋星灼,等.2008.不同下垫面温度和湿度湍流谱特征研究[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),44(3):391-398.Liu Mingxing,Zhang Hongsheng,Song Xingzhuo,et al.2008.Spectral characteristics of atmospheric turbulence over various surface conditions[J].Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis,44(3):391-398,doi:10.3321/j.issn:0479-8023.2008.03.011.
刘晓曼,程雪玲,胡非.2015.北京城区二氧化碳浓度和通量的梯度变化特征--I浓度与虚温[J].地球物理学报,58(5):1502-1512.Liu Xiaoman,Cheng Xueling,Hu Fei.2015.Gradient characteristics of CO2concentration and flux in Beijing urban area part I:Concentration and virtual temperature[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics(in Chinese),58(5):1502-1512,doi:10.6038/cjg20150504.
刘阳,刘辉志,王雷.2017.北京城市下垫面大气边界层湍流输送垂直分布特征[J].中国科学:地球科学,47(10):1243-1256.Liu Yang,Liu Huizhi,Wang Lei.2017.The vertical distribution characteristics of integral turbulence statistics in the atmospheric boundary layer over an urban area in Beijing[J].Science China Earth Sciences,60(8):1533-1545,doi:10.1007/s11430-016-9050-doi.
刘郁珏,胡非,程雪玲,等.2016.北京325米气象塔上CO2梯度观测数据质量控制与评价[J].大气科学,40(2):390-400.Liu Yujue,Hu Fei,Cheng Xueling,et al.2016.Data processing and quality assessment of the eddy covariance system of the 325-m meteorology tower in Beijing[J].Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences(in Chinese),40(2):390-400,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1504.14325.
Moncrieff J B,Massheder J M,De Bruin H,et al.1997.A system to measure surface fluxes of momentum,sensible heat,water vapour and carbon dioxide[J].J.Hydrol.,188-189:589-611,doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03194-0.
Moncrieff J B,Clement R,Finnigan J,et al.2004.Averaging,detrending,and filtering of eddy covariance time series[M]//Lee X,Massman W,Law B.Handbook of Micrometeorology:A Guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis.Dordrecht,Boston,London:Kluwer Academic,7-31,doi:10.1007/1-4020-2265-4_2.
Moriwaki R,Kanda M.2004.Seasonal and diurnal fluxes of radiation,heat,water vapor,and carbon dioxide over a suburban area[J].J.Appl.Meteor.,43:1700-1710,doi:10.1175/JAM2153.1.
Nemitz E,Hargreaves K J,McDonald A G,et al.2002.Micrometeorological measurements of the urban heat budget and CO2 emissions on a city scale[J].Environ.Sci.Technol.,36(14):3139-3146,doi:10.1021/es010277e.
O’Meara M.1999.Reinventing cities for people and the planet[R].World Watch Paper 147.Washington D C:World watch Institute.
Potere D,Schneider A.2007.A critical look at representations of urban areas in global maps[J].GeoJournal,69(1-2):55-80,doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9102-z.
Raupach M R,Thom A S,Edwards I.1980.A wind-tunnel study of turbulence flow close to regularly arrayed rough surfaces[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,18(4):373-397,doi:10.1007/BF00119495.
Reynolds O.1895.On the dynamical theory of incompreeible viscous fluids and the determination of criterion[J].Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London,186:123-164.
Roth M,Oke T R,Steyn D G.1989.Velocity and temperature spectra and cospectra in an unstable suburban atmosphere[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,47(1-4):309-320,doi:10.1007/BF00122336.
Sahlée E,Smedman A S,Rutgersson A,et al.2008.Spectra of CO2 and water vapour in the marine atmospheric surface layer[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,126(2):279-295,doi:10.1007/s10546-007-9230-5.
Soegaard H,M?ller-Jensen L.2003.Towards a spatial CO2 budget of a metropolitan region based on textural image classification and flux measurements[J].Remote Sens.Environ.,87(2-3):283-294,doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00185-8.
Van Dijk A V,Moene A F,De Bruin H A R.2004.The Principles of Surface Flux Physics:Theory,Practice and Description of the ECPACK Library[M].Wageningen:Wageningen University,99pp.
Velasco E,Pressley S,Allwine E,et al.2005.Measurements of CO2 fluxes from the Mexico City urban landscape[J].Atmos.Environ.,39(38):7433-7446,doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.08.038.
Walsh C J,Oke T R,Grimmond C B,et al.2004.Fluxes of atmospheric carbon dioxide over a suburban area of Vancouver[C]//Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on the Urban Environment.Vancouver,Canada:AMS.
王介民.1992.山谷城市的近地层大气湍流谱特征[J].大气科学,16(1):11-17.Wang Jiemin,1992.The spectral characteristics of atmospheric turbulence in an urban area of complex terrain[J].Scientia Atmospherica Sinica(in Chinese),16(1):11-17,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1992.01.02.
Webb E K,Pearman G I,Leuning R.1980.Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer[J].Quart.J.Roy.Meteor.Soc.,106(447):85-100,doi:10.1002/qj.49710644707.
周凌晞,汤洁,温玉璞.2002.地面风对瓦里关山大气CO2本底浓度的影响分析[J].环境科学学报,22(2):135-139.Zhou Lingxi,Tang Jie,Wen Yupu.2002.Impact of local surface wind on the atmospheric carbon dioxide background concentration at Mt.Waliguan[J].Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae,22(2):135-139,doi:10.3321/j.issn:0253-2468.2002.02.002.
Baldocchi D D,Hincks B B,Meyers T P.1988.Measuring biosphereatmosphere exchanges of biologically related gases with micrometeorological methods[J].Ecology,69(5):1331-1340,doi:10.2307/1941631.
Baldocchi D D,Wilson K B.2001.Modeling CO2 and water vapor exchange of a temperate broadleaved forest across hourly to decadal time scales[J].Ecological Modelling,142:155-184,doi:10.1016/S0304-3800(01)00287-3.
Cava D,Giostra U,Tagliazucca M.2001.Spectral maxima in a perturbed stable boundary layer[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,100(3):421-437,doi:10.1023/A:1019219117439.
Foken T,Gockede M,Mauder M,et al.2004.Post-field data quality control[M]//Lee X,Massman W,Law B.Handbook of Micrometeorology:AGuide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis.Dordrecht,Boston,London:Kluwer Academic,181-208,doi:10.1007/1-4020-2265-4_9.
Grabler A.1994.Technology[M]//Meyer W B,Turner B L.A Changes in Land Use and Land Cover:A Global Perspective.Cambridge:Cambridge University,287.
Grimmond C S B,Oke T R.2002.Turbulent heat fluxes in urban areas:Observations and a Local-Scale Urban Meteorological Parameterization Scheme(LUMPS)[J].J.Appl.Meteor.,41(7):792-810,doi:10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<0792:THFIUA>2.0.CO;2.
Grimmond C S B,Salmond J A,Oke T R,et al.2004.Flux and turbulence measurements at a densely built-up site in Marseille:Heat,mass(water and carbon dioxide),and momentum[J].Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres,109(D24):D24101,doi:10.1029/2004JD004936.
何文,刘辉志,冯健武.2010.城市近地层湍流通量及CO2通量变化特征[J].气候与环境研究,15(1):21-33.He Wen,Liu Huizhi,Feng Jianwu.2010.Characteristics of turbulent fluxes and carbon dioxide flux over urban surface layer[J].Climatic and Environmental Research,15(1):21-33,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9585.2010.01.03.
Helfter C,Famulari D,Phillips G J,et al.2011.Controls of carbon dioxide concentrations and fluxes above central London[J].Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics,11(5):1913-1928,doi:10.5194/acp-11-1913-2011.
Hoornweg D A,Freire M,Lee M J,et al.2011.Cities and Climate Change:Responding toAn UrgentAgenda[M].Washington D C:TheWorld Bank,324.
Hui D F,Wan S Q,Su B,et al.2004.Gap-filling missing data in eddy covariance measurements using multiple imputation(MI)for annual estimations[J].Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,121(1-2):93-111,doi:10.1016/S0168-1923(03)00158-8.
贾庆宇,周广胜,王宇,等.2010.城市复杂下垫面供暖前后CO2通量特征分析[J].环境科学,31(4):843-849.Jia Qingyu,Zhou Guangsheng,Wang Yu,et al.2010.Characteristics of CO2 flux before and in the heating period at urban complex underlying surface area[J].Environmental Science,31(4):843-849,doi:10.13227/j.hjkx.2010.04.025.
Kaimal J C,Wyngaard J C,Izumi Y,et al.1972.Spectral characteristics of surface-layer turbulence[J].Quart.J.Roy.Meteor.Soc.,98(417):563-589,doi:10.1002/qj.49709841707.
刘明星,张宏升,宋星灼,等.2008.不同下垫面温度和湿度湍流谱特征研究[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),44(3):391-398.Liu Mingxing,Zhang Hongsheng,Song Xingzhuo,et al.2008.Spectral characteristics of atmospheric turbulence over various surface conditions[J].Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis,44(3):391-398,doi:10.3321/j.issn:0479-8023.2008.03.011.
刘晓曼,程雪玲,胡非.2015.北京城区二氧化碳浓度和通量的梯度变化特征--I浓度与虚温[J].地球物理学报,58(5):1502-1512.Liu Xiaoman,Cheng Xueling,Hu Fei.2015.Gradient characteristics of CO2concentration and flux in Beijing urban area part I:Concentration and virtual temperature[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics(in Chinese),58(5):1502-1512,doi:10.6038/cjg20150504.
刘阳,刘辉志,王雷.2017.北京城市下垫面大气边界层湍流输送垂直分布特征[J].中国科学:地球科学,47(10):1243-1256.Liu Yang,Liu Huizhi,Wang Lei.2017.The vertical distribution characteristics of integral turbulence statistics in the atmospheric boundary layer over an urban area in Beijing[J].Science China Earth Sciences,60(8):1533-1545,doi:10.1007/s11430-016-9050-doi.
刘郁珏,胡非,程雪玲,等.2016.北京325米气象塔上CO2梯度观测数据质量控制与评价[J].大气科学,40(2):390-400.Liu Yujue,Hu Fei,Cheng Xueling,et al.2016.Data processing and quality assessment of the eddy covariance system of the 325-m meteorology tower in Beijing[J].Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences(in Chinese),40(2):390-400,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1504.14325.
Moncrieff J B,Massheder J M,De Bruin H,et al.1997.A system to measure surface fluxes of momentum,sensible heat,water vapour and carbon dioxide[J].J.Hydrol.,188-189:589-611,doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03194-0.
Moncrieff J B,Clement R,Finnigan J,et al.2004.Averaging,detrending,and filtering of eddy covariance time series[M]//Lee X,Massman W,Law B.Handbook of Micrometeorology:A Guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis.Dordrecht,Boston,London:Kluwer Academic,7-31,doi:10.1007/1-4020-2265-4_2.
Moriwaki R,Kanda M.2004.Seasonal and diurnal fluxes of radiation,heat,water vapor,and carbon dioxide over a suburban area[J].J.Appl.Meteor.,43:1700-1710,doi:10.1175/JAM2153.1.
Nemitz E,Hargreaves K J,McDonald A G,et al.2002.Micrometeorological measurements of the urban heat budget and CO2 emissions on a city scale[J].Environ.Sci.Technol.,36(14):3139-3146,doi:10.1021/es010277e.
O’Meara M.1999.Reinventing cities for people and the planet[R].World Watch Paper 147.Washington D C:World watch Institute.
Potere D,Schneider A.2007.A critical look at representations of urban areas in global maps[J].GeoJournal,69(1-2):55-80,doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9102-z.
Raupach M R,Thom A S,Edwards I.1980.A wind-tunnel study of turbulence flow close to regularly arrayed rough surfaces[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,18(4):373-397,doi:10.1007/BF00119495.
Reynolds O.1895.On the dynamical theory of incompreeible viscous fluids and the determination of criterion[J].Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London,186:123-164.
Roth M,Oke T R,Steyn D G.1989.Velocity and temperature spectra and cospectra in an unstable suburban atmosphere[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,47(1-4):309-320,doi:10.1007/BF00122336.
Sahlée E,Smedman A S,Rutgersson A,et al.2008.Spectra of CO2 and water vapour in the marine atmospheric surface layer[J].Bound.-Layer Meteor.,126(2):279-295,doi:10.1007/s10546-007-9230-5.
Soegaard H,M?ller-Jensen L.2003.Towards a spatial CO2 budget of a metropolitan region based on textural image classification and flux measurements[J].Remote Sens.Environ.,87(2-3):283-294,doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00185-8.
Van Dijk A V,Moene A F,De Bruin H A R.2004.The Principles of Surface Flux Physics:Theory,Practice and Description of the ECPACK Library[M].Wageningen:Wageningen University,99pp.
Velasco E,Pressley S,Allwine E,et al.2005.Measurements of CO2 fluxes from the Mexico City urban landscape[J].Atmos.Environ.,39(38):7433-7446,doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.08.038.
Walsh C J,Oke T R,Grimmond C B,et al.2004.Fluxes of atmospheric carbon dioxide over a suburban area of Vancouver[C]//Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on the Urban Environment.Vancouver,Canada:AMS.
王介民.1992.山谷城市的近地层大气湍流谱特征[J].大气科学,16(1):11-17.Wang Jiemin,1992.The spectral characteristics of atmospheric turbulence in an urban area of complex terrain[J].Scientia Atmospherica Sinica(in Chinese),16(1):11-17,doi:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1992.01.02.
Webb E K,Pearman G I,Leuning R.1980.Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer[J].Quart.J.Roy.Meteor.Soc.,106(447):85-100,doi:10.1002/qj.49710644707.
周凌晞,汤洁,温玉璞.2002.地面风对瓦里关山大气CO2本底浓度的影响分析[J].环境科学学报,22(2):135-139.Zhou Lingxi,Tang Jie,Wen Yupu.2002.Impact of local surface wind on the atmospheric carbon dioxide background concentration at Mt.Waliguan[J].Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae,22(2):135-139,doi:10.3321/j.issn:0253-2468.2002.02.002.