台湾地区工作贫穷的形成机制与政策思考
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摘要
过去一二十年来,中国台湾地区经济结构从工业社会转变成为后工业社会,同时也面临后进工业社会在全球市场中的挑战。在此情况下,新社会风险,如低薪化和弹性化的劳动市场,逐渐成为台湾地区社会面临的主要社会问题之一。"22K"即是在此背景下所浮现的议题之一。在此背景下,贫穷的本质也逐渐得到改变。传统工业社会中,强调"工作"是脱离贫穷的主要途径,但在低薪化和弹性化的劳动市场中,"工作"不再成为避免贫穷的保证,许多工作人口依然面临贫穷风险的威胁。一般而言,工作贫穷的成因不外乎:低薪、非正规工作、或是家庭工作人口与依赖人口比例太低。而台湾地区工作贫穷的现象主要可以归于两个因素:低薪化和非正规就业。本文聚焦这一问题,从量化分析角度验证台湾地区工作贫穷是因为普遍性的低薪工作所造成,还是因为非正规工作所造成。通过对LIS数据的回归分析发现,低薪化是台湾地区造成工作贫穷的主要原因。
In the past few decades,the economic structure of Taiwan changes from industrial to postindustrial society,which faces challenges in the global market.In this context,a series of new social risks sue h as lowering wages and increasing elasticity of labour market beomce one of the main social problems in Taiw an. "Working",traditionally been considered as an important way out of poverty,are no longer a guarantee.Th e causes of working poor in Taiwan can be generalized into two factors:low wages and informal employment.T his articles seeks to quantitatively analyze and compare these two causes of working poor in Taiwan,whether i t be low wages or informal employment.
In the past few decades,the economic structure of Taiwan changes from industrial to postindustrial society,which faces challenges in the global market.In this context,a series of new social risks sue h as lowering wages and increasing elasticity of labour market beomce one of the main social problems in Taiw an. "Working",traditionally been considered as an important way out of poverty,are no longer a guarantee.Th e causes of working poor in Taiwan can be generalized into two factors:low wages and informal employment.T his articles seeks to quantitatively analyze and compare these two causes of working poor in Taiwan,whether i t be low wages or informal employment.
引文
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(1)没有工作收入或是没有工作,不会是工作贫穷的原因。因为,无工作的贫穷家庭不会被归纳于工作贫穷当中。但是,在传统贫穷研究中,没有工作收入往往会是一项重要的因素(Iceland,2006;Kelso,1994;Lister,2004)。
(1)因为台湾家庭收支调查主要是调查前一年的家庭收入与支出的情況,换句话说,2013年的资料所呈现的即是2012年台湾家庭收入与支出的状況。
(1)资料来源:卫生福利部。
[2]AndreB,H.-J.,&Lohmann,H.(Eds.),The Working Poor in Europe:Employment,Poverty and Globalization,Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2008.
[3]Barry,N.,Welfare(Second ed.),Buckingham:Open University Press,1999.
[4]Baumol,W./'Macroeconomics of Unbalanced Growth:The Anatomy of Urban Crisis",American Economic Review,1967,57(3),415~426.
[5]Becker,G.S.,A Treatise on the Family(Enlarged Edition ed.),Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1991.
[6]Bell,D.,The Coming of Post-Industrial Society:A Venture in Social Forecasting,New York:Basic Books,1973.
[7]Bonoli,G.,New Social Risks and the New Politics of Post-industrial Social Policies The Politics of Post-industrial Welfare States:Adapting Post-War Social Policies to New Social Risks(pp.3-26),London:Roudedge,2006.
[8]Brady,D.,Rich Democracies,Poor People:How Politics Explain Poverty,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2009.
[9]Brady,D.,Fullerton,A.S.,&Cross,J.M.,"More than Just Nickels and Dimes:A CrossNational Analysis of Working Poverty in Affluent Democracies",Social Problems,2010,57(4),559~585.
[10]Clasen,J.,&Goerne,A.,Germany:Ambivalent Activation.In I.L0demel&A.Moreira(Eds.),Activation or Workfare?Governance and the Neo-Liberal Convergence(pp.172~202),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2014.
[11]Crettaz,E.,Fighting Working Poverty in Post-Industrial Economies:Causes,Trade-offs and Policy Solutions,Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2011.
[12]Crettaz,E.,&Bonoli,G.,Worlds of Working Poverty:National Variations in Mechanisms.In N.Fraser,R.Gutiérrez,&R.Pena-Casas(Eds.),Working Poverty in Europe:A Comparative Approach(pp.46~69),Basingstoke:Palgrave,2011.
[13]Crouch,C.,Social Change in Western Europe,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999.
[14]Deyo,F.C.,Reforming Asian Labor Systems:Economic Tensions and Worker Dissent,Ithaca:Cornrll University Press,2012.
[15]Emmenegger,P.,Hausermann,S.,Palier,B.,&Seeleib-Kaiser,M.,How We Grow Unequal.In P.Emmenegger,S.H(a|¨)usermann,B.Palier,&M.Seeleib-Kaiser(Eds.),The Age of Dualization:The Changing Face of Inequality in Deindustrializing Societies(pp.3-26),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2012.
[16]Esping-Andersen,G.,A New Gender Contract.In G.Esping-Andersen,D.Gallie,A.Hemerijck,&J.Myles(Eds.),Why We Need a New Welfare State(pp.68~95),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002.
[17]Esping-Andersen,G.,The Incomplete Revolution:Adapting to Women's New Roles,Cambridge:Polity Press,2009.
[18]Fleckenstein,T.,Saunders,A.M.,&Seeleib-Kaiser,M.,"The Dual Transformation of Social Protection and Human Capital:Comparing Britain and Germany",Comparative Political Studies,2011,44(12),1622~1650.
[19]Fraser,N.,Gutiérrez,R.,&PenaCasas,R.,Introdution.In N.Fraser,R.Gutiérrez,&R.Pena-Casas(Eds.),Working Poverty in Europe:A Comparative Approach(pp.1~12),Basingstoke:Palgrave,2011a.
[20]Fraser,N.,Gutiérrez,R.,&Pefia-Casas,R.(Eds.).,Working Poverty in Europe:A Comparative Approach,Basingstoke:Palgrave,2011b.
[21]Giesselmann,M.,"Differences in the Patterns of in-work Poverty in Germany and the UK",European Societies,2014,17(1),27~46.
[22]Goerne,A.,A Comparative Analysis of InWork Poverty in the European Union.In N.Fraser,R.Gutiérrez,&R.Pena-Casas(Eds.),Working Poverty in Europea:A Comparative Approach(pp.15-45),Basingstoke:Palgrave,2011.
[23]Goishi,N.,Social Safety Net for the Working Poor in Japan,Korea and Taiwan.In G.J.Hwang(Ed.),New Welfare States in East Asia:Global Challenges and Restructuring(pp.108~124),Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2011.
[24]Goldberg,G.S.,Revisiting the Feminization of Poverty in Cross-National Perspective.In G.S.Goldberg(Ed.),Poor Women in Rich Countries:The Feminization of Poverty over the Life Course(pp.3~27),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2010.
[25]Hu,M.-W.,&Schive,C.,"The Changing Competitiveness of Taiwan's Manufacturing SMEs",Small Business Economics,1998,11(4),315~326.
[26]Iceland,J.,Poverty in America:A Handbook(Second ed.),Berkeley:University of California Press,2006.
[27]Imai,J.,Policy Responses to the Precarity of Non-Regular Employment in Japan.In H.-H.M.Hsiao,A.L.Kalleberg,&K.Hewison(Eds.),Policy Responses to Precarious Work in Asia(pp.49-80),Taipei:Institute of Sociology,Academia Sinica,2015.
[28]Iversen,T.,Capitalism,Democracy,and Welfare,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005.
[29]Iwata,M.,Poverty and the Working Poor and Social Policy in East Asia:Exploring the Second Safety Net Proposal in Japan.In M.Izuhara(Ed.),Handbook on East Asian Social Policy(pp.434-451),Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2013.
[30]Kalleberg,A.L.,Good Jobs,Bad Jobs:The Rise of Polarized and Precarious Employment Systems in the United States,1970s to 2000s,New York:Russell Sage Foundation,2011.
[31]Keizer,A.B.,Changing in Japanese Employment Practices:Beyond the Japanese Model,London:Roudedge,2010.
[32]Kelso,W.A.,Poverty and the Underclass:Changing Perceptions of the Poor in America,New York:New York University Press,1994.
[33]Kenworthy,L.,Jobs with Equality,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2008.
[34]Kim,A.E.,&Lee,C.-M.,"Neoliberalism and Insecure Employment in Korea-Emergence of the Working Poor and Worsening Socio-Economic Polarization",Korea Observer,2014,45(2),255~273.
[35]King,D.,&Rueda,D.,"Cheap Labor:The New Politics of"Bread and Roses"in Industrial Democracies",Perspectives on Politics,2008,6(2),279~297.doi:10.1017/s1537592708080614
[36]Lee,S.-Y.,"Institutional legacy of state corporatism in de-industrial labour markets:a comparative study of Japan,South Korea and Taiwan",Socio-Economic Review,2016,14(1),73~95.
[37]Lee,Y.J.,&Ku,Y.W.,"East Asian Welfare Regimes:Testing the Hypothesis of the Developmental Welfare State",Social Policy&Administration,2007,41(2),197~212.
[38]Lister,R.,Poverty,Cambridge:Polity Press,2004.
[39]Lohmann,H.,"Welfare States,Labour Market Institutions and the Working Poor:A Comparative Analysis of 20 European Countries",European Sociological Review,2009,25(4),489~504.
[40]Lohmann,H.,&Andreβ,H.-J.,Explaining In-wok Poverty Within and Across Countries.In H.-J.Andreβ&H.Lohmann(Eds.),The Working Poor in Europe:Employment,Poverty and Globalization(pp.293~313),Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2008.
[41]Lohmann,H.,&Marx,I.,The Different Faces of In-Work Poverty Across Welfare States Regimes.In H.-J.Andreβ&H.Lohmann(Eds.),The Working Poor in Europe:Employment,Poverty and Globalization(pp.17~46),Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2008.
[42]Marx,I.,&Nolan,B.,In-Work Poverty.In B.Cantillon&F.Vandenbroucke(Eds.),Reconciling Work and Poverty Reduction:How Successful are European Welfare States?(pp.131~156),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2014.
[43]Mishra,R.,Globalization and the Welfare State,Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,1999.
[44]Miura,M.,Welfare through Work:Conservative Ideas,Partisan Dynamics,and Social Protection in Japan,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2012.
[45]Morel,N.,Palier,B.,&Palme,J.,Beyond the Welfare State as We Knew it?In N.Morel,B.Palier,&J.Palme(Eds.),Towards a Social Investment Welfare State?:Ideas,Policies and Challenges(pp.1~30),Bristol:Policy Press,2012.
[46]Nolan,B.,&Whelan,C.T.,Poverty and Deprivation in Europe,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2011.
[47]Oesch,D.,Occupational Change in Europe:How Technology&Education Transform the Job Structure,Oxford:Oxford Univesity Press,2013.
[48]Peiia-Casas,R.,&Ghailani,D.,Towards Individualizing Gender In—Work Poverty Risks.In N.Fraser,R.Gutiérrez,&R.Pena-Casas(Eds.),Working Poverty in Europe:A Comparative Approach(pp.202~231),Basingstoke:Palgrave,2011.
[49]Pena-Casas,R.,&Latta,M.,Working poor in the European Union,Dublin:European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions,2004.
[50]Rowntree,B.S.,Poverty:A Study of Town Life,Bristol:The Policy Press,2001.
[51]Scharpf,F.W.,Economic Changes,Vulnerabilities,and Institutional Capabilities.In F.W.Scharpf&V.A.Schmidt(Eds.),Welfare and Work in the Open Economy(Vol.1,pp.21~124),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000.
[52]Shildrick,T.,MacDonald,R.,Webster,C,&Garthwaite,K.,Poverty and Insecruity:Life in LowPay,No-Pay Britain,Bristol:Policy Press,2012.
[53]Shin,K.-Y.,Labor Market Flexibility and Policy Issue of Non-regular Employment in South Korea.In H.-H.M.Hsiao,A.L.Kalleberg,&K.Hewison(Eds.),Policy Responses to Precarious Work in Asia(pp.81~104),Taipei:Institute of Sociology,Academia Sinica,2015.
[54]Song,J.-E.,Inequality in the Workplace:Labor Market Reform in Japan and Korea,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2014.
[55]Standing,G.,The Precariat:The New Dangerous Class,London:Bloomsbury Academic,2011.
[56]Taylor-Gooby,P.,New Risks and Social Change.In P.Taylor-Gooby(Ed.),New Risks,New Welfare:The Transformation of the European Welfare State(pp.1~28),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004.
[57]Thelen,K.,Varieties of Liberalization and the Politics of Social Solidarity,Camrbidge:Cambridge University Press,2014.
[58]Visser,J.,"The first part-time economy in the world_a model to be followed",Journal of European Social Policy,2002,12(1),23~42.
[59]Wren,A.,Introduction:The Political Economy of Post-Industrial Societies.In A.Wren(Ed.),The Political Economy of the Service Transition(pp.1~70),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2013.
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(1)没有工作收入或是没有工作,不会是工作贫穷的原因。因为,无工作的贫穷家庭不会被归纳于工作贫穷当中。但是,在传统贫穷研究中,没有工作收入往往会是一项重要的因素(Iceland,2006;Kelso,1994;Lister,2004)。
(1)因为台湾家庭收支调查主要是调查前一年的家庭收入与支出的情況,换句话说,2013年的资料所呈现的即是2012年台湾家庭收入与支出的状況。
(1)资料来源:卫生福利部。