Land-Sea Contrast in the Lightning Diurnal Variation as Observed by the WWLLN and LIS/OTD Data
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摘要
Data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) for the period 2005-2011 and data composite of the Lightning Imaging Sensor/Optical Transient Detector (LIS/OTD) for 1995-2010 are used to analyze the lightning activity and its diurnal variation over land and ocean of the globe. The Congo basin shows a peak mean annual flash density of 160.7 fl km-2 yr-1 according to the LIS/OTD. The annual mean land to ocean flash ratio is 9.6:1, which confirms the result from Christian et al. in 2003 based on only 5-yr OTD data. The lightning density detected by the WWLLN is in general one order of magnitude lower than that of the LIS/OTD. The diurnal cycle of the lightning activity over land shows a single peak, with the maximum activity occurring around 1400-1900 LT (Local Time) and a minimum in the morning from both datasets. The oceanic diurnal variation has two peaks: the early morning peak between 0100 and 0300 LT and the afternoon peak with a stronger intensity between 1100 and 1400 LT over the Pacific Ocean, as revealed from the WWLLN dataset; whereas the diurnal variation over ocean in the LIS/OTD dataset shows a large fluctuation.
Data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) for the period 2005–2011 and data composite of the Lightning Imaging Sensor/Optical Transient Detector (LIS/OTD) for 1995–2010 are used to analyze the lightning activity and its diurnal variation over land and ocean of the globe. The Congo basin shows a peak mean annual flash density of 160.7 fl km-2 yr-1 according to the LIS/OTD. The annual mean land to ocean flash ratio is 9.6:1, which confirms the result from Christian et al. in 2003 based on only 5-yr OTD data. The lightning density detected by the WWLLN is in general one order of magnitude lower than that of the LIS/OTD. The diurnal cycle of the lightning activity over land shows a single peak, with the maximum activity occurring around 1400–1900 LT (Local Time) and a minimum in the morning from both datasets. The oceanic diurnal variation has two peaks: the early morning peak between 0100 and 0300 LT and the afternoon peak with a stronger intensity between 1100 and 1400 LT over the Pacific Ocean, as revealed from the WWLLN dataset; whereas the diurnal variation over ocean in the LIS/OTD dataset shows a large fluctuation.
Data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) for the period 2005–2011 and data composite of the Lightning Imaging Sensor/Optical Transient Detector (LIS/OTD) for 1995–2010 are used to analyze the lightning activity and its diurnal variation over land and ocean of the globe. The Congo basin shows a peak mean annual flash density of 160.7 fl km-2 yr-1 according to the LIS/OTD. The annual mean land to ocean flash ratio is 9.6:1, which confirms the result from Christian et al. in 2003 based on only 5-yr OTD data. The lightning density detected by the WWLLN is in general one order of magnitude lower than that of the LIS/OTD. The diurnal cycle of the lightning activity over land shows a single peak, with the maximum activity occurring around 1400–1900 LT (Local Time) and a minimum in the morning from both datasets. The oceanic diurnal variation has two peaks: the early morning peak between 0100 and 0300 LT and the afternoon peak with a stronger intensity between 1100 and 1400 LT over the Pacific Ocean, as revealed from the WWLLN dataset; whereas the diurnal variation over ocean in the LIS/OTD dataset shows a large fluctuation.
引文
Abarca,S.F.,K.L.Corbosiero,and T.J.GalarneauJr.,2010: An evaluation of the Worldwide Light-ning Location Network (WWLLN) using the Na-tional Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) asground truth.J.Geophys.Res.,115,D18206,doi: 10.1029/2009JD013411.
Beirle,S.,H.Huntrieser,and T.Wagner,,2010: Directsatellite observation of lightning-produced NOx.At-mos.Chem.Phys.,10(22),10965–10986.
Boccippio,D.J.,S.J.Goodman,and S.Heckman,2000:Regional differences in tropical lightning distribu-tions.J.Appl.Meteor.,39(12),2231–2248.
Bourscheidt,V.,O.P.Junior,K.P.Naccarato,et al.,2009: The influence of topography on the cloud-to-ground lightning density in South Brazil.Atmos.Res.,91(3–4),508–513.
Christian,H.J.,R.J.Blakeslee,D.J.Boccippio,et al.,2003: Global frequency and distribution of light-ning as observed from space by the Optical Tran-sient Detector.J.Geophys.Res.,108(D1),4005,doi:10.1029/2002JD002347.
Dai Jianhua,Qin Hong,and Zheng Jie,2005: Analysis oflightning activity over the Yangtze River delta usingTRMM/LIS observations.J.Appl.Meteor.Sci.,16(6),728–736.(in Chinese)
——,Y.Wang,L.Chen,et al.,2009: A comparison oflightning activity and convective indices over somemonsoon-prone areas of China.Atmos.Res.,91(2–4),438–452.
De Souza,P.E.,O.Pinto Jr.,I.R.C.A.Pinto,et al.,2009: the intracloud/cloud-to-ground lightning ra-tio in southeastern Brazil.Atmos.Res.,91(2–4),491–499.
Jacobson,A.R.,R.H.Holzworth,J.Harlin,et al.,2006:Performance assessment of the World Wide Light-ning Location Network (WWLLN),using the LosAlamos Sferic Array (LASA) as ground truth.J.Atmos.Ocean.Tech.,23(8),1082–1092.
Kandalgaonkar,S.S.,M.I.R.Tinmaker,J.R.Kulkarni,et al.,2003: Diurnal variation of lightning activityover the Indian region.Geophys.Res.Lett.,30(20),2022,doi: 10.1029/2003GL018005.
Lay,E.H.,R.H.Holzworth,C.J.Rodger,et al.,2004:WWLL global lightning detection system: Regionalvalidation study in Brazil.Geophys.Res.Lett.,31,L03102,doi: 10.1029/2003GL018882.
——,A.R.Jacobson,R.H.Holzworth,et al.,2007: Localtime variation in land/ocean lightning flash densityas measured by the World Wide Lightning Loca-tion Network.J.Geophys.Res.,112,D13111,doi:10.1029/2006JD007944.
Liu,D.X.,X.S.Qie,Y.J.Xiong,et al.,2011: Evolutionof the total lightning activity in a leading-line andtrailing stratiform mesoscale convective system overBeijing.Adv.Atmos.Sci.,28(4),1–13.
Lopez,R.E.,and R.L.Holle,1986: Diurnal and spatialvariability of lightning activity in northeastern Col-orado and central Florida during the summer.Mon.Wea.Rev.,114(7),1288–1312.
Ma Ming,Tao Shanchang,Zhu Baoyou,et al.,2005:Climatological distribution of lightning density ob-served by satellites in China and its circumjacentregions.Sci.China (Ser.D),48(2),219–229.
Maier,L.M.,E.P.Krider,M.W.Maier,1984: Aver-age diurnal variation of summer lightning over theFloirida Peninsula.Mon.Wea.Rev.,112(6),1134–1140.
Nesbitt,S.W.,R.Y.Zhang,and R.E.Orville,2000: Sea-sonal and global NOxproduction by lightning esti-mated from the Optical Transient Detector (OTD).Tellus (Ser.B),52(5),1206–1215.
Orville,R.E.,E.J.Zipser,M.Brook,et al.,1997: Light-ning in the region of the TOGA COARE.Bull.Amer.Meteor.Soc.,78(6),3–16.
——,and G.R.Huffines,2001: Cloud-to-ground light-ning in the United States: NLDN results in the firstdecade,1989–98.Mon.Wea.Rev.,129(5),1179–1193.
Pan,L.X.,X.S.Qie,D.X.Liu,et al.,2010: The light-ning activities in super typhoons over the NorthwestPacific.Sci.China (Ser.D),53(8),1241–1248.
—— and Qie Xiushu,2010: Lightning activity in SuperTyphoon Sepat (0709).Chinese J.Atmos.Sci.,34(6),1088–1098.(in Chinese)
Pinto,I.R.C.A.,O.Pinto,R.M.L.Rocha,et al.,1999:Cloud-to-ground lightning in southeastern Brazil in1993.Part 2: Time variations and flash characteris-tics.J.Geophys.Res.,104(D24),31381–31387.
Qie,X.S.,R.Toumi,and T.Yuan,2003a: Lightningactivities on the Tibetan Plateau as observed bythe lightning imaging sensor.J.Geophys.Res.108(D17),4551,doi: 10.1029/2002JD003304.
——,Zhou Yunjun,and Yuan Tie,2003b: Global light-ning activities and their regional differences observedfrom the satellite.Chinese J.Geophys.,46(6),743–750.(in Chinese)
Reap,R.M.,1986: Evaluation of cloud-to-ground light-ning data from the western United States for 1983–84 summer seasons.J.Climate Appl.Meteor.,25(6),785–799.
Rodger,C.J.,J.B.Brundell,R.L.Dowden,et al.,2004:Location accuracy of long-distance VLF lightninglocation network.Ann.Geophys.,22(3),747–758.
——,J.B.Brundell,and R.L.Dowden,2005: Locationaccuracy of VLF World Wide Lightning Location(WWLL) network: Post-algorithm upgrade.Ann.Geophys.,23(2),277–290.
——,S.W.Werner,J.B.Brundell,et al.,2006: Detectionefficiency of the VLF World-Wide Lightning Loca-tion Network (WWLLN): Initial case study.Ann.Geophys.,24(12),3197–3214.
Toumi,R.,J.D.Haigh,and K.S.Law,1996: A tropo-spheric ozone-lightning climate feedback.Geophys.Res.Lett.,23(9),1037–1040.
Wang Yigeng,Chen Weiming,and Liu Jie,2009: Tem-poral and spatial distributions of lightning activityin South China from TRMM satellite observations.J.Tropic.Meteor.,25(2),228–233.(in Chinese)
Westcott,N.E.,1995: Summertime cloud to groundlightning activity around major midwestern urbanareas.J.Appl.Meteor.,34(7),1633–1642.
Williams,E.R.,1992: The Schumann resonance: Aglobal tropical thermometer.Science,256(5060),1184–1187.
——,1994: Global circuit response to seasonal variationsin global surface air temperature.Mon.Wea.Rev.,122(8),1917–1929.
——,and S.J.Heckman,1993: The local diurnal variationof cloud electrification and the global diurnal vari-ation of negative charge on the earth.J.Geophys.Res.,98(D3),5221–5234.
Yuan,T.,and X.S.Qie,2008: Study on lightning ac-tivity and precipitation characteristics before andafter the onset of the South China Sea summermonsoon.J.Geophys.Res.,113,D14101,doi:10.1029/2007JD009382.
Zajac,B.A.,and S.A.Rutledge,2001: Cloud-to-groundlightning activity in the contiguous United Statesfrom 1995 to 1999.Mon.Wea.Rev.,129(5),999–1019.
Beirle,S.,H.Huntrieser,and T.Wagner,,2010: Directsatellite observation of lightning-produced NOx.At-mos.Chem.Phys.,10(22),10965–10986.
Boccippio,D.J.,S.J.Goodman,and S.Heckman,2000:Regional differences in tropical lightning distribu-tions.J.Appl.Meteor.,39(12),2231–2248.
Bourscheidt,V.,O.P.Junior,K.P.Naccarato,et al.,2009: The influence of topography on the cloud-to-ground lightning density in South Brazil.Atmos.Res.,91(3–4),508–513.
Christian,H.J.,R.J.Blakeslee,D.J.Boccippio,et al.,2003: Global frequency and distribution of light-ning as observed from space by the Optical Tran-sient Detector.J.Geophys.Res.,108(D1),4005,doi:10.1029/2002JD002347.
Dai Jianhua,Qin Hong,and Zheng Jie,2005: Analysis oflightning activity over the Yangtze River delta usingTRMM/LIS observations.J.Appl.Meteor.Sci.,16(6),728–736.(in Chinese)
——,Y.Wang,L.Chen,et al.,2009: A comparison oflightning activity and convective indices over somemonsoon-prone areas of China.Atmos.Res.,91(2–4),438–452.
De Souza,P.E.,O.Pinto Jr.,I.R.C.A.Pinto,et al.,2009: the intracloud/cloud-to-ground lightning ra-tio in southeastern Brazil.Atmos.Res.,91(2–4),491–499.
Jacobson,A.R.,R.H.Holzworth,J.Harlin,et al.,2006:Performance assessment of the World Wide Light-ning Location Network (WWLLN),using the LosAlamos Sferic Array (LASA) as ground truth.J.Atmos.Ocean.Tech.,23(8),1082–1092.
Kandalgaonkar,S.S.,M.I.R.Tinmaker,J.R.Kulkarni,et al.,2003: Diurnal variation of lightning activityover the Indian region.Geophys.Res.Lett.,30(20),2022,doi: 10.1029/2003GL018005.
Lay,E.H.,R.H.Holzworth,C.J.Rodger,et al.,2004:WWLL global lightning detection system: Regionalvalidation study in Brazil.Geophys.Res.Lett.,31,L03102,doi: 10.1029/2003GL018882.
——,A.R.Jacobson,R.H.Holzworth,et al.,2007: Localtime variation in land/ocean lightning flash densityas measured by the World Wide Lightning Loca-tion Network.J.Geophys.Res.,112,D13111,doi:10.1029/2006JD007944.
Liu,D.X.,X.S.Qie,Y.J.Xiong,et al.,2011: Evolutionof the total lightning activity in a leading-line andtrailing stratiform mesoscale convective system overBeijing.Adv.Atmos.Sci.,28(4),1–13.
Lopez,R.E.,and R.L.Holle,1986: Diurnal and spatialvariability of lightning activity in northeastern Col-orado and central Florida during the summer.Mon.Wea.Rev.,114(7),1288–1312.
Ma Ming,Tao Shanchang,Zhu Baoyou,et al.,2005:Climatological distribution of lightning density ob-served by satellites in China and its circumjacentregions.Sci.China (Ser.D),48(2),219–229.
Maier,L.M.,E.P.Krider,M.W.Maier,1984: Aver-age diurnal variation of summer lightning over theFloirida Peninsula.Mon.Wea.Rev.,112(6),1134–1140.
Nesbitt,S.W.,R.Y.Zhang,and R.E.Orville,2000: Sea-sonal and global NOxproduction by lightning esti-mated from the Optical Transient Detector (OTD).Tellus (Ser.B),52(5),1206–1215.
Orville,R.E.,E.J.Zipser,M.Brook,et al.,1997: Light-ning in the region of the TOGA COARE.Bull.Amer.Meteor.Soc.,78(6),3–16.
——,and G.R.Huffines,2001: Cloud-to-ground light-ning in the United States: NLDN results in the firstdecade,1989–98.Mon.Wea.Rev.,129(5),1179–1193.
Pan,L.X.,X.S.Qie,D.X.Liu,et al.,2010: The light-ning activities in super typhoons over the NorthwestPacific.Sci.China (Ser.D),53(8),1241–1248.
—— and Qie Xiushu,2010: Lightning activity in SuperTyphoon Sepat (0709).Chinese J.Atmos.Sci.,34(6),1088–1098.(in Chinese)
Pinto,I.R.C.A.,O.Pinto,R.M.L.Rocha,et al.,1999:Cloud-to-ground lightning in southeastern Brazil in1993.Part 2: Time variations and flash characteris-tics.J.Geophys.Res.,104(D24),31381–31387.
Qie,X.S.,R.Toumi,and T.Yuan,2003a: Lightningactivities on the Tibetan Plateau as observed bythe lightning imaging sensor.J.Geophys.Res.108(D17),4551,doi: 10.1029/2002JD003304.
——,Zhou Yunjun,and Yuan Tie,2003b: Global light-ning activities and their regional differences observedfrom the satellite.Chinese J.Geophys.,46(6),743–750.(in Chinese)
Reap,R.M.,1986: Evaluation of cloud-to-ground light-ning data from the western United States for 1983–84 summer seasons.J.Climate Appl.Meteor.,25(6),785–799.
Rodger,C.J.,J.B.Brundell,R.L.Dowden,et al.,2004:Location accuracy of long-distance VLF lightninglocation network.Ann.Geophys.,22(3),747–758.
——,J.B.Brundell,and R.L.Dowden,2005: Locationaccuracy of VLF World Wide Lightning Location(WWLL) network: Post-algorithm upgrade.Ann.Geophys.,23(2),277–290.
——,S.W.Werner,J.B.Brundell,et al.,2006: Detectionefficiency of the VLF World-Wide Lightning Loca-tion Network (WWLLN): Initial case study.Ann.Geophys.,24(12),3197–3214.
Toumi,R.,J.D.Haigh,and K.S.Law,1996: A tropo-spheric ozone-lightning climate feedback.Geophys.Res.Lett.,23(9),1037–1040.
Wang Yigeng,Chen Weiming,and Liu Jie,2009: Tem-poral and spatial distributions of lightning activityin South China from TRMM satellite observations.J.Tropic.Meteor.,25(2),228–233.(in Chinese)
Westcott,N.E.,1995: Summertime cloud to groundlightning activity around major midwestern urbanareas.J.Appl.Meteor.,34(7),1633–1642.
Williams,E.R.,1992: The Schumann resonance: Aglobal tropical thermometer.Science,256(5060),1184–1187.
——,1994: Global circuit response to seasonal variationsin global surface air temperature.Mon.Wea.Rev.,122(8),1917–1929.
——,and S.J.Heckman,1993: The local diurnal variationof cloud electrification and the global diurnal vari-ation of negative charge on the earth.J.Geophys.Res.,98(D3),5221–5234.
Yuan,T.,and X.S.Qie,2008: Study on lightning ac-tivity and precipitation characteristics before andafter the onset of the South China Sea summermonsoon.J.Geophys.Res.,113,D14101,doi:10.1029/2007JD009382.
Zajac,B.A.,and S.A.Rutledge,2001: Cloud-to-groundlightning activity in the contiguous United Statesfrom 1995 to 1999.Mon.Wea.Rev.,129(5),999–1019.