Shifting dynamics of nature, society and agriculture in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: Perspectives for future mountain development
|
摘要
Current approaches for sustainable mountain development have several persisting warning signals. Economic globalization, profitoriented market development, and infrastructure development have significantly altered traditional nature-society interactions, increased environmental pressures, and challenged agricultural sustainability in the mountains. Some of the effects of globalization could also be beneficial. Social differentiation and disintegration of mountain communities' have weakened their collective stakes on natural resources resulting in decline in initiatives such as community forestry, collective water management, domestication of rapidly disappearing herbal species, and balancing of economic and ecological concerns. Population growth, food insecurity, unemployment, and increasing economic gaps between rich and poor have led to out-migration of youth. Sustained action promoting ownership of new initiatives for rehabilitating degraded mountain landscapes through macro-level global/national initiatives, mountain specific planning and development efforts is severely lacking in many areas on the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Therefore, there is an urgent need for widening the scope of efforts directed to help mountain areas and communities, and a future thinking approach to enhance the sustainability of mountain areas as they are a valuable natural resource for humankind. This paper discusses the issues, opportunities, and provides suggestions for the future of mountain development.
Current approaches for sustainable mountain development have several persisting warning signals. Economic globalization, profitoriented market development, and infrastructure development have significantly altered traditional nature-society interactions, increased environmental pressures, and challenged agricultural sustainability in the mountains. Some of the effects of globalization could also be beneficial. Social differentiation and disintegration of mountain communities' have weakened their collective stakes on natural resources resulting in decline in initiatives such as community forestry, collective water management, domestication of rapidly disappearing herbal species, and balancing of economic and ecological concerns. Population growth, food insecurity, unemployment, and increasing economic gaps between rich and poor have led to out-migration of youth. Sustained action promoting ownership of new initiatives for rehabilitating degraded mountain landscapes through macro-level global/national initiatives, mountain specific planning and development efforts is severely lacking in many areas on the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Therefore, there is an urgent need for widening the scope of efforts directed to help mountain areas and communities, and a future thinking approach to enhance the sustainability of mountain areas as they are a valuable natural resource for humankind. This paper discusses the issues, opportunities, and provides suggestions for the future of mountain development.
Current approaches for sustainable mountain development have several persisting warning signals. Economic globalization, profitoriented market development, and infrastructure development have significantly altered traditional nature-society interactions, increased environmental pressures, and challenged agricultural sustainability in the mountains. Some of the effects of globalization could also be beneficial. Social differentiation and disintegration of mountain communities' have weakened their collective stakes on natural resources resulting in decline in initiatives such as community forestry, collective water management, domestication of rapidly disappearing herbal species, and balancing of economic and ecological concerns. Population growth, food insecurity, unemployment, and increasing economic gaps between rich and poor have led to out-migration of youth. Sustained action promoting ownership of new initiatives for rehabilitating degraded mountain landscapes through macro-level global/national initiatives, mountain specific planning and development efforts is severely lacking in many areas on the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Therefore, there is an urgent need for widening the scope of efforts directed to help mountain areas and communities, and a future thinking approach to enhance the sustainability of mountain areas as they are a valuable natural resource for humankind. This paper discusses the issues, opportunities, and provides suggestions for the future of mountain development.
引文
Agrawal A,Cashore B,Hardin R,et al.(2013)Economic Contribution of Forests.Background Paper,United Nations Forum on Forests,Istanbul,Turkey.
Altieri M A(2002)Agroecology:the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal environments.Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment 93(1-3):1-24.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(02)00085-3
Banskota K,Karky BS,Sktsch M(2007)Reducing carbon emission through community-managed forest in Himalaya.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Banskota K,Sharma B(1999)Traded resource flow from highland to lowland:Understanding economic linkages.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Bastakoti RC,Bharati L,Bhattarai U,et al.(2017)Agriculture under changing climate conditions and adaptation options in the Koshi Basin.Climate and Development 9(7):634-648.https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2016.1223594
Bjonnes IM(1983)External economic dependency and changing human adjustment to marginal environments in high Himalaya Nepal.Mountain Research and Development3(3):263-272.
Blaikie PM,Sadeque SZ(2000)Policy in high places:Environment and development in the Himalayan region.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Blaikie PM,Muldavin JS(2004)Upstream,downstream,China,India:The politics of environment in the Himalayan region.Annals of the American Association of Geographers 94(3):520-548.https://www.jstor.org/stable/3693928
Boyce JK,Narain S,Stanton EA(Eds.)(2007)Reclaiming nature:environmental justice and ecological restoration(Vol.1).New York,NY:Anthem Press.
Brunet S,Bauer J,De Lacy T,et al.(2001)Tourism development in Bhutan:Tensions between tradition and modernity.Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9(3):243-263.https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667401
Chambers R(1990)Micro environments unobserved.IIED(International Institute for Environment and Development)Gate Keepers Series 22.London,UK:IIED.
Chettri N,Sharma E,Shakya B,et al.(2010)Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas:Status,trends and vulnerability to climate change;Climate change impact and vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas-Technical report 2.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Choudhry D,Ghosh I,Chauhan S,et al.(2013)The value chain approach for mountain development:Case studies from Uttarakhand,India.ICIMOD Working Paper 2013/6.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Cornia GA(1985)Farm size,land yields and the agricultural production function:An analysis for fifteen developing countries.World Development 13(4):513-534.https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(85)90054-3
Crate SA,Nuttall M(eds.)(2009)Anthropology and climate change.Walnut Creek,CA:Left Coast Press.
Deraniyagala S(2005)The political economy of civil conflict in Nepal.Oxford Development Studies 33(1):47-62.https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810500099659
Deshar BD(2013)An overview of agricultural degradation in Nepal and its impact on economy and environment.Global Journal of Economics and Social Development 3(1):1-20.http://www.ripublication.com
Eriksson M,Fang J,Dekens J(2008)How does climate change affect human health in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region?In World Health Organization,Regional Health Forum 12(1):11-15.
FAO:SARD-M(2010)Sustainable rural development in mountain focuses on HKH countries(draft),Rome,Italy:FAO.
Firbank LG,Petit S,Smart S,et al.(2008)Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity:a British perspective.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.B:Biological Sciences 363(1492):777-787.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2183
Gautam AP,Shivakoti GP,Webb EL(2004)Forest cover change,physiography,local economy,and institutions in a mountain watershed in Nepal.Environmental Management 33(1):48-61.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-0031
Guillet DG(1983)Towards a cultural ecology of mountains:The Central Andes and the Himalayas compared.Current Anthropology 24:561-574.
GurungDR,Bajracharya SR,Immerzeel W,et al.(2011)Understanding the dynamics of snow and glaciers in Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region,Sustainable Mountain Development No.60,Autumn 2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Hoermann B,Kollmair M(2009)Labour migration and remittances in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 15.
Hunzai K,Gerlitz J,Hoermann B(2011)Understanding mountain poverty in Hindu Kush-Himalayas:Regional report for Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,India,Myanmar,Nepal,and Pakistan.Nov.2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2011a)Three decades of India/ICIMODcollaboration strategic shift in partnership.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2011b)Green economy for sustainable mountain development(A concept paper for Rio+20 and beyondOutcome of the international conference on green economy and sustainable mountain development opportunities and challenges in view of Rio+20,September 2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2002)Poverty alleviation in mountain areas of China.In Jodha NS,Bhadra B,Khanal NR,Richter J(Eds.)Poverty alleviation in mountain Areas of China-Proc.Inter.Conf.,11-15,November 2002.Chengdu,China.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Jackson WJ,Tamrakar RM,Hunt S,et al.(1998)Land-use changes in two Middle Hills districts of Nepal.Mountain Research and Development 18(3):193-212.
Jaquet S,Schwilch G,Hartung-Hofmann F,et al.(2015)Does outmigration lead to land degradation?Labour shortage and land management in a western Nepal watershed.Applied Geography 62:157-170.
Jodha NS,Banskota M,Partap T(1992)Strategies for the sustainable development of mountain agriculture:An overview.Sustainable Mountain Agriculture:Perspectives and Issues 1:3-40.
Jodha NS(1997)Mountain agriculture.In B.Messerli,&J.D.Ives(Eds.)Mountains of the world:A global priority.New York,NY:Parthenon.pp 313-335.
Jodha NS(1998)Reviving the social system-ecosystem links in the Himalayas.In F.Berkes,&C.Folke(Eds.)Linking social and ecological systems:Management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press.pp.285-310.
Jodha NS(2000a)Poverty alleviation and sustainable development in mountain areas:Role of highland-lowland links in the context of rapid globalization.In M.Banskota,T.S.Papola,&J.Richter(Eds.).Growth poverty alleviation and sustainable resource management in mountain areas of South Asia.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).pp 541-570.
Jodha NS(2000b)Globalization and fragile mountain environments:Policy challenges and choices.Mountain Research and Development 20(4):296-299.
Jodha NS(2001)Life on the edge:Sustaining agriculture and community resources in fragile environments.New Delhi,India:Oxford University Press.p 356.
Jodha NS(2005a)Adaptation strategies against growing environmental and social vulnerabilities.Himalayan Journal of Sciences,3(5):33-42.
Jodha NS(2005b)Economic globalization and its repercussions for fragile mountains and communities in the Himalayas.In Huber UM,Bugmann HKM,Reasoner MA(Eds.).Global change and mountain regions.Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer.pp 583-591.
Jodha NS(2012)Economic globalisation seen through the lens of mountain perspective.In M.P.Lama(Ed.)Globalisation and cultural practices in mountain areas:Dynamics,dimensions and implications.New Delhi,India:Sikkim University Press,Gangtok and Indus Publishing Company.pp64-81.
Jodha NS,Partap T(1993)Folk agronomy in the Himalayas:Implications for agricultural research and extension practices.IIED(International Institute for Environment and Development)Research Series 3(1).London,UK:IIED.
Jodha NS,Shrestha S(1994)Sustainable and more productive mountain agriculture:Problems and prospects.A paper presented at ICIMOD’s 10th Anniversary International Symposium on‘Mountain Environment and Development’.Kathmandu,Nepal,1-2 December.
Khanal NR(2002)Land use and land cover dynamics in the Himalaya:A case study of the Madi watershed,Western Development Region,Nepal[PhD dissertation].Kathmandu,Nepal:Tribhuvan University.
Khanal NR,Watanabe T(2006)Abandonment of agricultural land and its consequences:A case study in the Sikles area,Gandaki Basin,Nepal Himalaya.Mountain Research and Development 26(1):32-40.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)026
Kreutzmann H(2000)Improving accessibility for mountain development:Role of transport networks and urban settlements.In:Banskota M,Papola TS&Richter JJ(eds.)Growth,poverty alleviation and sustainable resource management in the mountain areas of South Asia.Proceedings of the International Conference.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).pp 485-514.
Kreutzmann H(Ed.)(2012)Pastoral practices in High Asia:Agency of'development'effected by modernisation,resettlement and transformation.Springer Science&Business Media.
Kreutzmann H(2013)The tragedy of responsibility in high Asia:modernizing traditional pastoral practices and preserving modernist worldviews.Pastoralism:Research Policy and Practice 3(1):7.
Merz J,Nakarmi G,Shrestha S,et al.(2004)Public water sources in rural watersheds of Nepal’s middle mountains:Issues and constraints.Environmental Management 34(1):26-37.
Molden D,Sharma E(2013)ICIMOD’s strategy for delivering high quality research and achieving impact for sustainable mountain development.Mountain Research and Development 33(2):179-183.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-13-00018.1
Murshed SM,Gates S(2005)Spatial-horizontal inequality and the Maoist insurgency in Nepal.Review of Development Economics 9(1):121-134.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2005.00267.x
Neupane N(2011)Political-economy of water distribution in the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal.In D.Werner,&S.Bauer(Eds.)Farming and rural systems economics.Vol.128.Weikersheim,Germany:Margraf Publication.212 p.
Neupane N,Murthy MSR,Rasul G,et al.(2013)Integrated biophysical and socioeconomic model for adaptation to climate change for agriculture and water in the Koshi Basin.In W.L.Filho(Ed.)Handbook of climate change adaptation.Berlin,Germany:Springer-Verlag.pp 1835-1859.
Nyaupane GP,Morais DB,Dowler L(2006)The role of community involvement and number/type of visitors on tourism impacts:A controlled comparison of Annapurna,Nepal and Northwest Yunnan,China.Tourism management27(6):1373-1385.
Ning W,Rawat GS,Joshi S,et al.(eds.)(2013)High-altitude rangelands and their interfaces in the Hindu Kush Himalayas.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 202.
Olivier A,Perez R,Julio J,et al.(2012):Global Land Cover Map for 2009(GlobCover 2009).?European Space Agency(ESA)&Universitécatholique de Louvain(UCL),PANGAEA.https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.787668
Pant B(2011)Harnessing remittances for productive use in Nepal.Nepal Rastra Bank Economic Review 23:1-20.
Pant LP,KC KB,Fraser ED,et al.(2014)Adaptive transition management for transformations to agricultural sustainability in the Karnali Mountains of Nepal.Agroecology and sustainable food systems 38(10):1156-1183.
Partap T(2011)Hill agriculture:Challenges and opportunities.Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 66(1):33-52.
Poffenberger M(Ed.)(2000)Communities and forest management in South Asia.IUCN.162 p.
PoudelS,Shaw R(2015)Demographic changes,economic changes and livelihood changes in the HKH Region.In H.K.Nibanupudi,&R.Shaw(Eds.)Mountain hazards and disaster risk reduction.Tokyo,Japan:Springer.pp.105-123.
Rai RK,Bhatta LD,Acharya U,et al.(2018)Assessing climateresilient agriculture for smallholders.Environmental Development.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2018.06.002
Rasul G(2010)The role of the Himalayan mountain system in food security and agricultural sustainability in South Asia.International Journal of Rural Management 6(1):95-116.
Rasul G(2014)Food,water,and energy security in South Asia:a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region.Environmental Science and Policy 39:35-48.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.01.010
Rhoades R(1997)Pathways towards a sustainable mountain agriculture for the 21st Century:The Hindu-Kush Himalayan Experience.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 161.
Sanwal M(1989)What we know about mountain development,common property,investment priorities and institutional arrangements.Mountain Research and Development 19(1):3-14.
Sati VP(2005)Systems of agriculture farming in the Uttranchal Himalaya,India.Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):76-85.
Saxena KG,Maikhuri RK,Rao KS(2005)Changes in agricultural biodiversity:Implications for sustainable livelihood in the Himalaya.Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):23.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-005-0023-3
Shang ZH,Gibb MJ,Leiber F,et al.(2014)The sustainable development of grassland-livestock systems on the Tibetan plateau:problems,strategies and prospects.The Rangeland Journal 36(3):267-296.
Sharma E,Chettri N,Oli KP(2010)Mountain biodiversity conservation,and management:A paradigm shift in policies and practices in Hindu Kush-Himalaya.Ecological Research25(5):909-925.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-010-0747-6
Sharma KD,Pathania MS,Lal H(2006)Farming system approach for sustainable development of agriculture in mountain regions-A case of Himachal Pradesh.Agricultural Economics Research Review 19:101-112
Sharma P,PartapT(1994)Population poverty and development issues in Hindu-Kush Himalayas.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Shrestha B(2011)Earth observation-Taking the pulse of Himalayas in sustainable mountain development.No.60Autumn,2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Shrestha AB,Aryal R(2011)Climate change in Nepal and its impact on Himalayan glaciers.Regional Environmental Change 11(1):65-77.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-010-0174-9
Stone GD(2001)Theory of the square chicken:Advances in agricultural intensification theory.Asia Pacific Viewpoint42(2-3):163-180.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8373.00142
Su MM,Wall G(2009)The Qinghai-Tibet railway and Tibetan tourism:travelers'perspectives.Tourism Management 30(5):650-657.
Tambe S,Kharel G,Arrawatia ML,et al.(2012)Reviving dying springs:climate change adaptation experiments from the Sikkim Himalaya.Mountain Research and Development 32(1):62-72.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00079.1
Thapa PB(2001)Land-use/land cover change with focus on land abandonment in middle hills of Nepal:A case study of Thumki VDC,Kaski District[MA dissertation].Kirtipur,Nepal:Tribhuvan University.
Tiwari K R,Nyborg IL,Sitaula BK,et al.(2011)Analysis of the sustainability of upland farming systems in the Middle Mountains region of Nepal.International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 6(4):289-306.https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2008.0390
Toshihiko M(2011)Integration of low carbon society with a resource circulating and nature harmonious society.In M.Sumi,&T.Masui(Eds.)Climate change and global sustainability:A holistic approach.New York,NY:United Nations University Press.pp 258-277.https://doi.org/10.18356/706dd3ff-en
Tulachan PM(2001)Mountain agriculture in the Hindu KushHimalaya:A regional comparative analysis.Mountain Research and Development 21(3):260-267.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2001)021[0260:MAITHK]2.0.CO;2
Turner II BL,Kasperson RE,Meyer WB,et al.(1990)The two types of global environmental change:Definitional and spatial-scale issues in their human dimensions.Global Environmental Change 1(1):14-22.
Uddin K,Abdul Matin M,Maharjan S(2018)Assessment of Land Cover Change and Its Impact on Changes in Soil Erosion Risk in Nepal.Sustainability 10:4715.https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124715
Ullah S,Farooq M,Shafique M,et al.(2016)Spatial assessment of forest cover and land-use changes in the Hindu-Kush mountain ranges of northern Pakistan.Journal of Mountain Science 13(7):1229-1237.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-015-3456-3
Altieri M A(2002)Agroecology:the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal environments.Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment 93(1-3):1-24.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(02)00085-3
Banskota K,Karky BS,Sktsch M(2007)Reducing carbon emission through community-managed forest in Himalaya.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Banskota K,Sharma B(1999)Traded resource flow from highland to lowland:Understanding economic linkages.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Bastakoti RC,Bharati L,Bhattarai U,et al.(2017)Agriculture under changing climate conditions and adaptation options in the Koshi Basin.Climate and Development 9(7):634-648.https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2016.1223594
Bjonnes IM(1983)External economic dependency and changing human adjustment to marginal environments in high Himalaya Nepal.Mountain Research and Development3(3):263-272.
Blaikie PM,Sadeque SZ(2000)Policy in high places:Environment and development in the Himalayan region.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Blaikie PM,Muldavin JS(2004)Upstream,downstream,China,India:The politics of environment in the Himalayan region.Annals of the American Association of Geographers 94(3):520-548.https://www.jstor.org/stable/3693928
Boyce JK,Narain S,Stanton EA(Eds.)(2007)Reclaiming nature:environmental justice and ecological restoration(Vol.1).New York,NY:Anthem Press.
Brunet S,Bauer J,De Lacy T,et al.(2001)Tourism development in Bhutan:Tensions between tradition and modernity.Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9(3):243-263.https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667401
Chambers R(1990)Micro environments unobserved.IIED(International Institute for Environment and Development)Gate Keepers Series 22.London,UK:IIED.
Chettri N,Sharma E,Shakya B,et al.(2010)Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas:Status,trends and vulnerability to climate change;Climate change impact and vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas-Technical report 2.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Choudhry D,Ghosh I,Chauhan S,et al.(2013)The value chain approach for mountain development:Case studies from Uttarakhand,India.ICIMOD Working Paper 2013/6.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Cornia GA(1985)Farm size,land yields and the agricultural production function:An analysis for fifteen developing countries.World Development 13(4):513-534.https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(85)90054-3
Crate SA,Nuttall M(eds.)(2009)Anthropology and climate change.Walnut Creek,CA:Left Coast Press.
Deraniyagala S(2005)The political economy of civil conflict in Nepal.Oxford Development Studies 33(1):47-62.https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810500099659
Deshar BD(2013)An overview of agricultural degradation in Nepal and its impact on economy and environment.Global Journal of Economics and Social Development 3(1):1-20.http://www.ripublication.com
Eriksson M,Fang J,Dekens J(2008)How does climate change affect human health in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region?In World Health Organization,Regional Health Forum 12(1):11-15.
FAO:SARD-M(2010)Sustainable rural development in mountain focuses on HKH countries(draft),Rome,Italy:FAO.
Firbank LG,Petit S,Smart S,et al.(2008)Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity:a British perspective.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.B:Biological Sciences 363(1492):777-787.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2183
Gautam AP,Shivakoti GP,Webb EL(2004)Forest cover change,physiography,local economy,and institutions in a mountain watershed in Nepal.Environmental Management 33(1):48-61.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-0031
Guillet DG(1983)Towards a cultural ecology of mountains:The Central Andes and the Himalayas compared.Current Anthropology 24:561-574.
GurungDR,Bajracharya SR,Immerzeel W,et al.(2011)Understanding the dynamics of snow and glaciers in Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region,Sustainable Mountain Development No.60,Autumn 2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Hoermann B,Kollmair M(2009)Labour migration and remittances in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 15.
Hunzai K,Gerlitz J,Hoermann B(2011)Understanding mountain poverty in Hindu Kush-Himalayas:Regional report for Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,India,Myanmar,Nepal,and Pakistan.Nov.2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2011a)Three decades of India/ICIMODcollaboration strategic shift in partnership.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2011b)Green economy for sustainable mountain development(A concept paper for Rio+20 and beyondOutcome of the international conference on green economy and sustainable mountain development opportunities and challenges in view of Rio+20,September 2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)(2002)Poverty alleviation in mountain areas of China.In Jodha NS,Bhadra B,Khanal NR,Richter J(Eds.)Poverty alleviation in mountain Areas of China-Proc.Inter.Conf.,11-15,November 2002.Chengdu,China.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Jackson WJ,Tamrakar RM,Hunt S,et al.(1998)Land-use changes in two Middle Hills districts of Nepal.Mountain Research and Development 18(3):193-212.
Jaquet S,Schwilch G,Hartung-Hofmann F,et al.(2015)Does outmigration lead to land degradation?Labour shortage and land management in a western Nepal watershed.Applied Geography 62:157-170.
Jodha NS,Banskota M,Partap T(1992)Strategies for the sustainable development of mountain agriculture:An overview.Sustainable Mountain Agriculture:Perspectives and Issues 1:3-40.
Jodha NS(1997)Mountain agriculture.In B.Messerli,&J.D.Ives(Eds.)Mountains of the world:A global priority.New York,NY:Parthenon.pp 313-335.
Jodha NS(1998)Reviving the social system-ecosystem links in the Himalayas.In F.Berkes,&C.Folke(Eds.)Linking social and ecological systems:Management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press.pp.285-310.
Jodha NS(2000a)Poverty alleviation and sustainable development in mountain areas:Role of highland-lowland links in the context of rapid globalization.In M.Banskota,T.S.Papola,&J.Richter(Eds.).Growth poverty alleviation and sustainable resource management in mountain areas of South Asia.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).pp 541-570.
Jodha NS(2000b)Globalization and fragile mountain environments:Policy challenges and choices.Mountain Research and Development 20(4):296-299.
Jodha NS(2001)Life on the edge:Sustaining agriculture and community resources in fragile environments.New Delhi,India:Oxford University Press.p 356.
Jodha NS(2005a)Adaptation strategies against growing environmental and social vulnerabilities.Himalayan Journal of Sciences,3(5):33-42.
Jodha NS(2005b)Economic globalization and its repercussions for fragile mountains and communities in the Himalayas.In Huber UM,Bugmann HKM,Reasoner MA(Eds.).Global change and mountain regions.Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer.pp 583-591.
Jodha NS(2012)Economic globalisation seen through the lens of mountain perspective.In M.P.Lama(Ed.)Globalisation and cultural practices in mountain areas:Dynamics,dimensions and implications.New Delhi,India:Sikkim University Press,Gangtok and Indus Publishing Company.pp64-81.
Jodha NS,Partap T(1993)Folk agronomy in the Himalayas:Implications for agricultural research and extension practices.IIED(International Institute for Environment and Development)Research Series 3(1).London,UK:IIED.
Jodha NS,Shrestha S(1994)Sustainable and more productive mountain agriculture:Problems and prospects.A paper presented at ICIMOD’s 10th Anniversary International Symposium on‘Mountain Environment and Development’.Kathmandu,Nepal,1-2 December.
Khanal NR(2002)Land use and land cover dynamics in the Himalaya:A case study of the Madi watershed,Western Development Region,Nepal[PhD dissertation].Kathmandu,Nepal:Tribhuvan University.
Khanal NR,Watanabe T(2006)Abandonment of agricultural land and its consequences:A case study in the Sikles area,Gandaki Basin,Nepal Himalaya.Mountain Research and Development 26(1):32-40.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)026
Kreutzmann H(2000)Improving accessibility for mountain development:Role of transport networks and urban settlements.In:Banskota M,Papola TS&Richter JJ(eds.)Growth,poverty alleviation and sustainable resource management in the mountain areas of South Asia.Proceedings of the International Conference.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).pp 485-514.
Kreutzmann H(Ed.)(2012)Pastoral practices in High Asia:Agency of'development'effected by modernisation,resettlement and transformation.Springer Science&Business Media.
Kreutzmann H(2013)The tragedy of responsibility in high Asia:modernizing traditional pastoral practices and preserving modernist worldviews.Pastoralism:Research Policy and Practice 3(1):7.
Merz J,Nakarmi G,Shrestha S,et al.(2004)Public water sources in rural watersheds of Nepal’s middle mountains:Issues and constraints.Environmental Management 34(1):26-37.
Molden D,Sharma E(2013)ICIMOD’s strategy for delivering high quality research and achieving impact for sustainable mountain development.Mountain Research and Development 33(2):179-183.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-13-00018.1
Murshed SM,Gates S(2005)Spatial-horizontal inequality and the Maoist insurgency in Nepal.Review of Development Economics 9(1):121-134.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2005.00267.x
Neupane N(2011)Political-economy of water distribution in the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal.In D.Werner,&S.Bauer(Eds.)Farming and rural systems economics.Vol.128.Weikersheim,Germany:Margraf Publication.212 p.
Neupane N,Murthy MSR,Rasul G,et al.(2013)Integrated biophysical and socioeconomic model for adaptation to climate change for agriculture and water in the Koshi Basin.In W.L.Filho(Ed.)Handbook of climate change adaptation.Berlin,Germany:Springer-Verlag.pp 1835-1859.
Nyaupane GP,Morais DB,Dowler L(2006)The role of community involvement and number/type of visitors on tourism impacts:A controlled comparison of Annapurna,Nepal and Northwest Yunnan,China.Tourism management27(6):1373-1385.
Ning W,Rawat GS,Joshi S,et al.(eds.)(2013)High-altitude rangelands and their interfaces in the Hindu Kush Himalayas.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 202.
Olivier A,Perez R,Julio J,et al.(2012):Global Land Cover Map for 2009(GlobCover 2009).?European Space Agency(ESA)&Universitécatholique de Louvain(UCL),PANGAEA.https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.787668
Pant B(2011)Harnessing remittances for productive use in Nepal.Nepal Rastra Bank Economic Review 23:1-20.
Pant LP,KC KB,Fraser ED,et al.(2014)Adaptive transition management for transformations to agricultural sustainability in the Karnali Mountains of Nepal.Agroecology and sustainable food systems 38(10):1156-1183.
Partap T(2011)Hill agriculture:Challenges and opportunities.Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 66(1):33-52.
Poffenberger M(Ed.)(2000)Communities and forest management in South Asia.IUCN.162 p.
PoudelS,Shaw R(2015)Demographic changes,economic changes and livelihood changes in the HKH Region.In H.K.Nibanupudi,&R.Shaw(Eds.)Mountain hazards and disaster risk reduction.Tokyo,Japan:Springer.pp.105-123.
Rai RK,Bhatta LD,Acharya U,et al.(2018)Assessing climateresilient agriculture for smallholders.Environmental Development.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2018.06.002
Rasul G(2010)The role of the Himalayan mountain system in food security and agricultural sustainability in South Asia.International Journal of Rural Management 6(1):95-116.
Rasul G(2014)Food,water,and energy security in South Asia:a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region.Environmental Science and Policy 39:35-48.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.01.010
Rhoades R(1997)Pathways towards a sustainable mountain agriculture for the 21st Century:The Hindu-Kush Himalayan Experience.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).p 161.
Sanwal M(1989)What we know about mountain development,common property,investment priorities and institutional arrangements.Mountain Research and Development 19(1):3-14.
Sati VP(2005)Systems of agriculture farming in the Uttranchal Himalaya,India.Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):76-85.
Saxena KG,Maikhuri RK,Rao KS(2005)Changes in agricultural biodiversity:Implications for sustainable livelihood in the Himalaya.Journal of Mountain Science 2(1):23.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-005-0023-3
Shang ZH,Gibb MJ,Leiber F,et al.(2014)The sustainable development of grassland-livestock systems on the Tibetan plateau:problems,strategies and prospects.The Rangeland Journal 36(3):267-296.
Sharma E,Chettri N,Oli KP(2010)Mountain biodiversity conservation,and management:A paradigm shift in policies and practices in Hindu Kush-Himalaya.Ecological Research25(5):909-925.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-010-0747-6
Sharma KD,Pathania MS,Lal H(2006)Farming system approach for sustainable development of agriculture in mountain regions-A case of Himachal Pradesh.Agricultural Economics Research Review 19:101-112
Sharma P,PartapT(1994)Population poverty and development issues in Hindu-Kush Himalayas.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Shrestha B(2011)Earth observation-Taking the pulse of Himalayas in sustainable mountain development.No.60Autumn,2011.Kathmandu,Nepal:International Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD).
Shrestha AB,Aryal R(2011)Climate change in Nepal and its impact on Himalayan glaciers.Regional Environmental Change 11(1):65-77.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-010-0174-9
Stone GD(2001)Theory of the square chicken:Advances in agricultural intensification theory.Asia Pacific Viewpoint42(2-3):163-180.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8373.00142
Su MM,Wall G(2009)The Qinghai-Tibet railway and Tibetan tourism:travelers'perspectives.Tourism Management 30(5):650-657.
Tambe S,Kharel G,Arrawatia ML,et al.(2012)Reviving dying springs:climate change adaptation experiments from the Sikkim Himalaya.Mountain Research and Development 32(1):62-72.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00079.1
Thapa PB(2001)Land-use/land cover change with focus on land abandonment in middle hills of Nepal:A case study of Thumki VDC,Kaski District[MA dissertation].Kirtipur,Nepal:Tribhuvan University.
Tiwari K R,Nyborg IL,Sitaula BK,et al.(2011)Analysis of the sustainability of upland farming systems in the Middle Mountains region of Nepal.International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 6(4):289-306.https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2008.0390
Toshihiko M(2011)Integration of low carbon society with a resource circulating and nature harmonious society.In M.Sumi,&T.Masui(Eds.)Climate change and global sustainability:A holistic approach.New York,NY:United Nations University Press.pp 258-277.https://doi.org/10.18356/706dd3ff-en
Tulachan PM(2001)Mountain agriculture in the Hindu KushHimalaya:A regional comparative analysis.Mountain Research and Development 21(3):260-267.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2001)021[0260:MAITHK]2.0.CO;2
Turner II BL,Kasperson RE,Meyer WB,et al.(1990)The two types of global environmental change:Definitional and spatial-scale issues in their human dimensions.Global Environmental Change 1(1):14-22.
Uddin K,Abdul Matin M,Maharjan S(2018)Assessment of Land Cover Change and Its Impact on Changes in Soil Erosion Risk in Nepal.Sustainability 10:4715.https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124715
Ullah S,Farooq M,Shafique M,et al.(2016)Spatial assessment of forest cover and land-use changes in the Hindu-Kush mountain ranges of northern Pakistan.Journal of Mountain Science 13(7):1229-1237.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-015-3456-3