Spatial patterns in natural Picea crassifolia forests of northwestern China, as basis for close-to-nature forestry
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摘要
Close-to-nature forest management has been proposed as an effective method for improving the quality of plantation forests. Knowledge of spatial distribution patterns, structure, and succession trajectories in natural forests can provide guidelines for the establishment of close-to-nature forest plantations. Such knowledge is lacking in natural spruce(Picea crassifolia) forests in the Qilian Mountains of China, impeding the establishment of production forests. We conducted a case study in the Qilian Mountains to analyze the relationships between the naturally-formed forest patches and terrain factors, spatial heterogeneity of stand characteristics, and stand structure following harvesting disturbance. Our results suggested that spruce plantations will be effective on the N, NE, and NW slopes, at elevations between 2700 and 3300 m, and on slopes ranging from 15° to 45°. Further, planted forest patches should occupy 64% of the slope area on semi-shady slopes(NE, NW). Spatial patterns in the studied forest exhibited a strong scale-effect, and an area of 0.25 ha could be used as the most efficient plot scale for the management of spruce plantations. Partial logging is an effective method for the conversion of spruce planted forests into nearnatural forests, and the intensity of partial logging can be determined from the negative exponential function relationship between stand density and DBH. Our results provided critical information for the development of spruce plantations and conversion of existing plantations.
Close-to-nature forest management has been proposed as an effective method for improving the quality of plantation forests. Knowledge of spatial distribution patterns, structure, and succession trajectories in natural forests can provide guidelines for the establishment of close-to-nature forest plantations. Such knowledge is lacking in natural spruce(Picea crassifolia) forests in the Qilian Mountains of China, impeding the establishment of production forests. We conducted a case study in the Qilian Mountains to analyze the relationships between the naturally-formed forest patches and terrain factors, spatial heterogeneity of stand characteristics, and stand structure following harvesting disturbance. Our results suggested that spruce plantations will be effective on the N, NE, and NW slopes, at elevations between 2700 and 3300 m, and on slopes ranging from 15° to 45°. Further, planted forest patches should occupy 64% of the slope area on semi-shady slopes(NE, NW). Spatial patterns in the studied forest exhibited a strong scale-effect, and an area of 0.25 ha could be used as the most efficient plot scale for the management of spruce plantations. Partial logging is an effective method for the conversion of spruce planted forests into nearnatural forests, and the intensity of partial logging can be determined from the negative exponential function relationship between stand density and DBH. Our results provided critical information for the development of spruce plantations and conversion of existing plantations.
Close-to-nature forest management has been proposed as an effective method for improving the quality of plantation forests. Knowledge of spatial distribution patterns, structure, and succession trajectories in natural forests can provide guidelines for the establishment of close-to-nature forest plantations. Such knowledge is lacking in natural spruce(Picea crassifolia) forests in the Qilian Mountains of China, impeding the establishment of production forests. We conducted a case study in the Qilian Mountains to analyze the relationships between the naturally-formed forest patches and terrain factors, spatial heterogeneity of stand characteristics, and stand structure following harvesting disturbance. Our results suggested that spruce plantations will be effective on the N, NE, and NW slopes, at elevations between 2700 and 3300 m, and on slopes ranging from 15° to 45°. Further, planted forest patches should occupy 64% of the slope area on semi-shady slopes(NE, NW). Spatial patterns in the studied forest exhibited a strong scale-effect, and an area of 0.25 ha could be used as the most efficient plot scale for the management of spruce plantations. Partial logging is an effective method for the conversion of spruce planted forests into nearnatural forests, and the intensity of partial logging can be determined from the negative exponential function relationship between stand density and DBH. Our results provided critical information for the development of spruce plantations and conversion of existing plantations.
引文
Besag JE(1977)Comments on Ripley’s paper.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B 39(2):193-195.
Burton JI,Zenner EK,Frelich LE,et al.(2009)Patterns of plant community structure within and among primary and secondgrowth northern hardwood forest stands.Forest Ecology and Management 258(11):2556-2568.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.012
Chen J,Bradshaw GA(1999)Forest structure in space:a case study of an old growth spruce-fir forest in changbaishan natural reserve,pr china.Forest Ecology and Management 120(1):219-233.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00543-X
Chen LF,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2015)Patterns and controls of soil organic carbon and nitrogen in alpine forests of northwestern China.Forest Science 61(6):1033-1040.http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.14-231
Chen LF,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2016)Patterns and environmental controls of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in alpine ecosystems of northwestern China.Catena 137:37-43.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.08.017
Diamond JM,Ross MS(2016)Canopy gaps do not help establish pioneer species in a South Florida dry forest.Journal of Tropical Ecology 32(2):107-115.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266467416000109
Du J,Zhao WJ,He ZB,et al.(2015)Characterizing stand structure in a spruce forests:effects of sampling protocols.Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions 7(3):0245-0256.https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1226.2015.00245
Haase P(1995)Spatial pattern analysis in ecology based on Ripley's K-function:Introduction and methods of edge correction.Journal of Vegetation Science 6(4):575-582.https://doi.org/10.2307/3236356
Hubbert KR,Preisler HK,Wohlgemuth PM,et al.(2006)Prescribed burning effects on soil physical properties and soil water repellency in a steep chaparral watershed,southern California,USA.Geoderma 130:284-298.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.02.001
He ZB,Zhao WZ,Liu H,et al.(2010)Successional process of Picea spruce forest after logging disturbance in semiarid mountains:A case study in the Qilian Mountains,northwestern China.Forest Ecology and Management 260(3):396-402.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.04.034
He ZB,Zhao WZ,Zhang LJ,et al.(2013)Response of tree recruitment to climatic variability in the alpine treeline ecotone of the Qilian Mountains,Northwestern China.Forest Science 59:118-126.http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.11-044
Jia GD,Yu XX,Fan DX,et al.(2016)Mechanism underlying the spatial pattern formation of dominant tree species in a natural secondary forest.Plos One 11(3):e0152596.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152596
Král K,Valtera M,Janík D,et al.(2014)Spatial variability of general stand characteristics in central European beechdominated natural stands-Effects of scale.Forest Ecology and Management 328:353-364.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.05.046
Lin SZ,Huang SG(2001)A establishment and management of nature-approximating mixed forests in south China.World Forestry Research 14(2):73-78.(In Chinese).
Lu YC,Zhang SG,Lei XD,et al.(2009)Theoretical basis and implementation techniques on close-to-nature transformation of plantations.World Forestry Research 22(1):20-27.(In Chinese)
Nagaike T,Hayashi A,Kubo M(2010)Diversity of naturally regenerating tree species in the overstorey layer of Larix kaempferi plantations and abandoned broadleaf coppice stands in central Japan.Forestry 83:285-291.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpq011
Nagaike T,Fujita T,Dejima S,et al.(2012)Interactive influences of distance from seed source and management practices on tree species composition in conifer plantations.Forest Ecology and Management 283:48-55.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.07.006
Pommerening A,Murphy ST(2004)A review of the history,definitions and methods of continuous cover forestry with special attention to afforestation and restocking.Forestry77(1):27-44.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/77.1.27
Pommerening A,Stoyan D(2008)Reconstructing spatial tree point patterns from nearest neighbour summary statistics measured in small sub windows.Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38(5):1110-1122.https://doi.org/10.1139/X07-222
Paluch JG(2007)The spatial pattern of a natural European beech(Fagus sylvatica L.)-silver fir(Abies alba Mill.)forest:a patch-mosaic perspective.Forest Ecology and Management253(1):161-170.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.07.013
Rebertus AJ,Williamson GB,Moser EB(1989)Fire-induced changes in Quercus laevis spatial pattern in Florida sandhills.Journal of Ecology 77(3):638-650.https://doi.org/10.2307/2260975
Reineke LH(1933)Perfecting a stand-density index for evenaged forests.Journal of Agricultural Research 46:627-638.
Ripley BD(1977)Modeling spatial patterns.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B 39:172-212.
Rozas V,Zas R,Solla A(2009)Spatial structure of deciduous forest stands with contrasting human influence in northwest Spain.European Journal of Forest Research 128(3):273-285.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-009-0263-9
Roessiger J,Griess VC,Knoke T(2011)May risk aversion lead to near-natural forestry?A simulation study.Forestry 84(5):527-537.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpr017
Schütz JP(1999)Close-to-nature silviculture:is this concept compatible with species diversity?.Forestry 72(4):359-366.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/72.4.359
Schou E,Jacobsen JB,Kristensen KL(2012)An economic evaluation of strategies for transforming even-aged into nearnatural forestry in a conifer-dominated forest in Denmark.Forest Policy and Economics 20:89-98.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2012.02.010
von Oheimb G,Westphal C,Tempel H,et al.(2005)Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest(Fagus sylvatica)(Serrahn,North-east Germany).Forest Ecology and Management 212(1):253-263.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.033
Wang GX,Cheng GD(1999)Water resource development and its influence on the environment in arid areas of China-the case of the Hei River basin.Journal of Arid Environments43(2):121-131.https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1999.0563
Wang JY,Che KJ,Fu HE et al.(1997)Study on Biomass of Water Conservation Forest on North Slope of Qilian Mountains.Journal of Fujian College Forestry 18:319-323.(In Chinese)
Wehenkel C,Braz?oprotázio J M,Carrilloparra A,et al.(2015)Spatial distribution patterns in the very rare and species-rich Picea chihuahuana Tree Community(Mexico).Plos One10(10):e0140442.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143899
Wehenkel C,Corral-Rivas JJ,Hernández-Díaz JC,et al.(2011)Estimating balanced structure areas in multi-species forests on the Sierra Madre Occidental,Mexico.Annals of Forest Science68(68):385-394.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0027-9
Wingfield MJ,Roux J,Slippers B,et al.(2013)Established and new technologies reduce increasing pest and pathogen threats to Eucalypt plantations.Forest Ecology and Management 301:35-42.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.09.002
Yoda K,Kira T,Ogawa H,et al.(1963)Self-thinning in overcrowded pure stands under cultivated and natural conditions.Journal of Biology of Osaka City Universit 14:107-129.
Yu L,Huang L,Shao X,et al.(2015)Warming-Induced Decline of Picea spruce Growth in the Qilian Mountains in Recent Decades.Plo S one 10(6):e0129959.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129959
Zeide B(2010)Comparison of self-thinning models:an exercise in reasoning.Trees 24(6):1117-1126.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0484-z
Zeng WS(2009)Close-to-nature forest management:Apractical approach to improve the forest quality of China.Forest Resources Management 2:6-11.(In Chinese)
Zhu X,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2015)Effects of thinning on the soil moisture of the Picea spruce plantation in Qilian Mountains.Forest Research 28(1):55-60.(In Chinese)
Burton JI,Zenner EK,Frelich LE,et al.(2009)Patterns of plant community structure within and among primary and secondgrowth northern hardwood forest stands.Forest Ecology and Management 258(11):2556-2568.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.012
Chen J,Bradshaw GA(1999)Forest structure in space:a case study of an old growth spruce-fir forest in changbaishan natural reserve,pr china.Forest Ecology and Management 120(1):219-233.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00543-X
Chen LF,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2015)Patterns and controls of soil organic carbon and nitrogen in alpine forests of northwestern China.Forest Science 61(6):1033-1040.http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.14-231
Chen LF,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2016)Patterns and environmental controls of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in alpine ecosystems of northwestern China.Catena 137:37-43.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.08.017
Diamond JM,Ross MS(2016)Canopy gaps do not help establish pioneer species in a South Florida dry forest.Journal of Tropical Ecology 32(2):107-115.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266467416000109
Du J,Zhao WJ,He ZB,et al.(2015)Characterizing stand structure in a spruce forests:effects of sampling protocols.Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions 7(3):0245-0256.https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1226.2015.00245
Haase P(1995)Spatial pattern analysis in ecology based on Ripley's K-function:Introduction and methods of edge correction.Journal of Vegetation Science 6(4):575-582.https://doi.org/10.2307/3236356
Hubbert KR,Preisler HK,Wohlgemuth PM,et al.(2006)Prescribed burning effects on soil physical properties and soil water repellency in a steep chaparral watershed,southern California,USA.Geoderma 130:284-298.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.02.001
He ZB,Zhao WZ,Liu H,et al.(2010)Successional process of Picea spruce forest after logging disturbance in semiarid mountains:A case study in the Qilian Mountains,northwestern China.Forest Ecology and Management 260(3):396-402.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.04.034
He ZB,Zhao WZ,Zhang LJ,et al.(2013)Response of tree recruitment to climatic variability in the alpine treeline ecotone of the Qilian Mountains,Northwestern China.Forest Science 59:118-126.http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.11-044
Jia GD,Yu XX,Fan DX,et al.(2016)Mechanism underlying the spatial pattern formation of dominant tree species in a natural secondary forest.Plos One 11(3):e0152596.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152596
Král K,Valtera M,Janík D,et al.(2014)Spatial variability of general stand characteristics in central European beechdominated natural stands-Effects of scale.Forest Ecology and Management 328:353-364.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.05.046
Lin SZ,Huang SG(2001)A establishment and management of nature-approximating mixed forests in south China.World Forestry Research 14(2):73-78.(In Chinese).
Lu YC,Zhang SG,Lei XD,et al.(2009)Theoretical basis and implementation techniques on close-to-nature transformation of plantations.World Forestry Research 22(1):20-27.(In Chinese)
Nagaike T,Hayashi A,Kubo M(2010)Diversity of naturally regenerating tree species in the overstorey layer of Larix kaempferi plantations and abandoned broadleaf coppice stands in central Japan.Forestry 83:285-291.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpq011
Nagaike T,Fujita T,Dejima S,et al.(2012)Interactive influences of distance from seed source and management practices on tree species composition in conifer plantations.Forest Ecology and Management 283:48-55.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.07.006
Pommerening A,Murphy ST(2004)A review of the history,definitions and methods of continuous cover forestry with special attention to afforestation and restocking.Forestry77(1):27-44.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/77.1.27
Pommerening A,Stoyan D(2008)Reconstructing spatial tree point patterns from nearest neighbour summary statistics measured in small sub windows.Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38(5):1110-1122.https://doi.org/10.1139/X07-222
Paluch JG(2007)The spatial pattern of a natural European beech(Fagus sylvatica L.)-silver fir(Abies alba Mill.)forest:a patch-mosaic perspective.Forest Ecology and Management253(1):161-170.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.07.013
Rebertus AJ,Williamson GB,Moser EB(1989)Fire-induced changes in Quercus laevis spatial pattern in Florida sandhills.Journal of Ecology 77(3):638-650.https://doi.org/10.2307/2260975
Reineke LH(1933)Perfecting a stand-density index for evenaged forests.Journal of Agricultural Research 46:627-638.
Ripley BD(1977)Modeling spatial patterns.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B 39:172-212.
Rozas V,Zas R,Solla A(2009)Spatial structure of deciduous forest stands with contrasting human influence in northwest Spain.European Journal of Forest Research 128(3):273-285.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-009-0263-9
Roessiger J,Griess VC,Knoke T(2011)May risk aversion lead to near-natural forestry?A simulation study.Forestry 84(5):527-537.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpr017
Schütz JP(1999)Close-to-nature silviculture:is this concept compatible with species diversity?.Forestry 72(4):359-366.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/72.4.359
Schou E,Jacobsen JB,Kristensen KL(2012)An economic evaluation of strategies for transforming even-aged into nearnatural forestry in a conifer-dominated forest in Denmark.Forest Policy and Economics 20:89-98.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2012.02.010
von Oheimb G,Westphal C,Tempel H,et al.(2005)Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest(Fagus sylvatica)(Serrahn,North-east Germany).Forest Ecology and Management 212(1):253-263.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.033
Wang GX,Cheng GD(1999)Water resource development and its influence on the environment in arid areas of China-the case of the Hei River basin.Journal of Arid Environments43(2):121-131.https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1999.0563
Wang JY,Che KJ,Fu HE et al.(1997)Study on Biomass of Water Conservation Forest on North Slope of Qilian Mountains.Journal of Fujian College Forestry 18:319-323.(In Chinese)
Wehenkel C,Braz?oprotázio J M,Carrilloparra A,et al.(2015)Spatial distribution patterns in the very rare and species-rich Picea chihuahuana Tree Community(Mexico).Plos One10(10):e0140442.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143899
Wehenkel C,Corral-Rivas JJ,Hernández-Díaz JC,et al.(2011)Estimating balanced structure areas in multi-species forests on the Sierra Madre Occidental,Mexico.Annals of Forest Science68(68):385-394.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0027-9
Wingfield MJ,Roux J,Slippers B,et al.(2013)Established and new technologies reduce increasing pest and pathogen threats to Eucalypt plantations.Forest Ecology and Management 301:35-42.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.09.002
Yoda K,Kira T,Ogawa H,et al.(1963)Self-thinning in overcrowded pure stands under cultivated and natural conditions.Journal of Biology of Osaka City Universit 14:107-129.
Yu L,Huang L,Shao X,et al.(2015)Warming-Induced Decline of Picea spruce Growth in the Qilian Mountains in Recent Decades.Plo S one 10(6):e0129959.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129959
Zeide B(2010)Comparison of self-thinning models:an exercise in reasoning.Trees 24(6):1117-1126.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0484-z
Zeng WS(2009)Close-to-nature forest management:Apractical approach to improve the forest quality of China.Forest Resources Management 2:6-11.(In Chinese)
Zhu X,He ZB,Du J,et al.(2015)Effects of thinning on the soil moisture of the Picea spruce plantation in Qilian Mountains.Forest Research 28(1):55-60.(In Chinese)